references.bib

@article{kellogg_climate_1974,
	title = {Climate {Stabilization}: {For} {Better} or for {Worse}?},
	volume = {186},
	copyright = {1974 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	shorttitle = {Climate {Stabilization}},
	url = {https://science.sciencemag.org/content/186/4170/1163},
	doi = {10.1126/science.186.4170.1163},
	language = {en},
	number = {4170},
	urldate = {2020-03-20},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Kellogg, W. W. and Schneider, S. H.},
	month = dec,
	year = {1974},
	pmid = {17833918},
	note = {Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science
Section: Articles},
	pages = {1163--1172}
}

@article{schneider_carbon_1975,
	title = {On the {Carbon} {Dioxide}–{Climate} {Confusion}},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0022-4928},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0469%281975%29032%3C2060%3AOTCDC%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032<2060:OTCDC>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {A number of estimates of global surface temperature sensitivity to a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide to 600 ppm are collected here and critically reviewed. The assumptions and formulations that lead to differences between certain models' estimates are explained in some detail. Based on current understanding of climate theory and modeling it is concluded that a state-of-the-art order-of-magnitude estimate for the global surface temperature increase from a doubling of atmospheric C02 content is between 1.5 and 3 K with an amplification of the global average increase in polar zones. It is pointed out, however, that this estimate may prove to be high or low by several-fold as a result of climatic feedback mechanisms not properly accounted for in state-of-the-art models.},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2020-03-20},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Schneider, Stephen H.},
	month = nov,
	year = {1975},
	note = {Publisher: American Meteorological Society},
	pages = {2060--2066}
}

@article{flegal_solar_2019,
	title = {Solar {Geoengineering}: {Social} {Science}, {Legal}, {Ethical}, and {Economic} {Frameworks}},
	volume = {44},
	shorttitle = {Solar {Geoengineering}},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-030032},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-030032},
	abstract = {Solar geoengineering research in the social sciences and humanities has largely evolved in parallel with research in the natural sciences. In this article, we review the current state of the literature on the ethical, legal, economic, and social science aspects of this emerging area. We discuss issues regarding the framing and futures of solar geoengineering, empirical social science on public views and public engagement, the evolution of ethical concerns regarding research and deployment, and the current legal and economic frameworks and emerging proposals for the regulation and governance of solar geoengineering.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2020-03-20},
	journal = {Annual Review of Environment and Resources},
	author = {Flegal, Jane A. and Hubert, Anna-Maria and Morrow, David R. and Moreno-Cruz, Juan B.},
	year = {2019},
	note = {\_eprint: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-030032},
	pages = {399--423}
}

@article{sherwood_adaptability_2010,
	title = {An adaptability limit to climate change due to heat stress},
	volume = {107},
	issn = {0027-8424},
	url = {https://www.pnas.org/content/107/21/9552},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.0913352107},
	abstract = {Despite the uncertainty in future climate-change impacts, it is often assumed that humans would be able to adapt to any possible warming. Here we argue that heat stress imposes a robust upper limit to such adaptation. Peak heat stress, quantified by the wet-bulb temperature TW, is surprisingly similar across diverse climates today. TW never exceeds 31 °C. Any exceedence of 35 °C for extended periods should induce hyperthermia in humans and other mammals, as dissipation of metabolic heat becomes impossible. While this never happens now, it would begin to occur with global-mean warming of about 7 °C, calling the habitability of some regions into question. With 11–12 °C warming, such regions would spread to encompass the majority of the human population as currently distributed. Eventual warmings of 12 °C are possible from fossil fuel burning. One implication is that recent estimates of the costs of unmitigated climate change are too low unless the range of possible warming can somehow be narrowed. Heat stress also may help explain trends in the mammalian fossil record.},
	number = {21},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Sherwood, Steven C. and Huber, Matthew},
	year = {2010},
	note = {Publisher: National Academy of Sciences
\_eprint: https://www.pnas.org/content/107/21/9552.full.pdf},
	pages = {9552--9555}
}

@article{mcmichael_climate_2010,
	title = {Climate change: {Heat}, health, and longer horizons},
	volume = {107},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	shorttitle = {Climate change},
	url = {https://www.pnas.org/content/107/21/9483},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1004894107},
	abstract = {Public concern over climate-change impacts has mostly focused on the economic, physical, and political domains. The consequences for various industries, agriculture, livelihoods, national gross domestic product, property, infrastructure, and electoral prospects have captured most attention. In this issue of PNAS, Sherwood and Huber (1) apply a longer than usual perspective on climate change and conclude that, because of limits to human tolerance of heat, much of Earth’s surface may not be habitable by 2300. Their important, related, and overarching statement is that “current assessments are underestimating the seriousness of climate change” (1). They argue that, whereas high-profile threats such as sea-level rise and economic slowdown have caused widespread anxieties, their impacts on human communities would pale into insignificance in a world that might, thermally, become partly or wholly uninhabitable by humans.

This chord needs to be struck. The world’s human population is playing for higher stakes than have generally been recognized. Global climate change (along with today’s other human-induced, large-scale systemic environmental changes) poses great risks to the planet’s existing life-support systems and conditions. Nearly all of the adverse consequences of climate change—reduced regional food yields, freshwater shortages, increased frequency of extreme weather events, coastal population displacement, changes in the ecology and geography of infectious agents, declines in farming community incomes, and biodiversity losses with accompanying disruption of ecosystem functions—will converge adversely on human biology and health. Climate change, ultimately, is a threat to our biological health and survival (2).

There are four main threads to the authors’ argument about future heat extremes. ( i ) When the modifying effect of humidity on perceived (i.e., physiologically experienced) heat is allowed, the present range of extreme climatic conditions around the globe is actually rather limited: the hottest places tend to be dry, so that wet-bulb temperatures (TW) essentially never exceed 31 …},
	language = {en},
	number = {21},
	urldate = {2020-03-19},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {McMichael, Anthony J. and Dear, Keith B. G.},
	month = may,
	year = {2010},
	pmid = {20483994},
	note = {Publisher: National Academy of Sciences
Section: Commentary},
	pages = {9483--9484}
}

@misc{environment_adaptation_2018,
	title = {Adaptation {Gap} report},
	url = {http://www.unenvironment.org/resources/adaptation-gap-report},
	abstract = {This is the fourth edition of the UN Environment Adaptation Gap Reports. Since 2014, these reports have focused on exploring adaptation gaps, characterized as the difference between the actual level of adaptation and the level required to achieve a societal goal. The adoption of the Paris Agreement established a global goal on adaptation of “enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change, with a view to contributing to sustainable development and ensuring an adequate adaptation response in the context of the temperature goal”. As the Paris Agreement is now being implemented, important decisions are about to be made on how to report on, and take stock of, progress towards this global goal. The Adaptation Gap Reports focus on providing policy-relevant information to support such efforts.

The focus of the 2018 report is dual: The first part examines the gaps that exist in a number of areas that are central to taking stock and assessing progress on adaptation, namely the enabling environment as expressed through laws and policies, key development aspects of adaptive capacity, and the costs of and finance needed for adaptation. The second part of the report focuses on the adaptation gap in one particular sector, namely health. Based on the available scientific evidence on climate impacts and health outcomes, the second part provides an overview of the global adaptation gap in health, followed by a specific focus on three key areas of climate-related health risks: heat and extreme events, climate-sensitive infectious diseases, and food and nutritional security},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-03-19},
	journal = {UNEP - UN Environment Programme},
	author = {Environment, U. N.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2018},
	note = {Library Catalog: www.unenvironment.org
Section: publications}
}

@article{geoffroy_transient_2012,
	title = {Transient {Climate} {Response} in a {Two}-{Layer} {Energy}-{Balance} {Model}. {Part} {I}: {Analytical} {Solution} and {Parameter} {Calibration} {Using} {CMIP5} {AOGCM} {Experiments}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	shorttitle = {Transient {Climate} {Response} in a {Two}-{Layer} {Energy}-{Balance} {Model}. {Part} {I}},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00195.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00195.1},
	abstract = {This is the first part of a series of two articles analyzing the global thermal properties of atmosphere–ocean coupled general circulation models (AOGCMs) within the framework of a two-layer energy-balance model (EBM). In this part, the general analytical solution of the system is given and two idealized climate change scenarios, one with a step forcing and one with a linear forcing, are discussed. These solutions give a didactic description of the contributions from the equilibrium response and of the fast and slow transient responses during a climate transition. Based on these analytical solutions, a simple and physically based procedure to calibrate the two-layer model parameters using an AOGCM step-forcing experiment is introduced. Using this procedure, the global thermal properties of 16 AOGCMs participating in phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) are determined. It is shown that, for a given AOGCM, the EBM tuned with only the abrupt 4×CO2 experiment is able to reproduce with a very good accuracy the temperature evolution in both a step-forcing and a linear-forcing experiment. The role of the upper-ocean and deep-ocean heat uptakes in the fast and slow responses is also discussed. One of the main weaknesses of the simple EBM discussed in this part is its ability to represent the evolution of the top-of-the-atmosphere radiative imbalance in the transient regime. This issue is addressed in Part II by taking into account the efficacy factor of deep-ocean heat uptake.},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2020-03-19},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Geoffroy, O. and Saint-Martin, D. and Olivié, D. J. L. and Voldoire, A. and Bellon, G. and Tytéca, S.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2012},
	note = {Publisher: American Meteorological Society},
	pages = {1841--1857}
}

@article{lenssen_improvements_2019,
	title = {Improvements in the {GISTEMP} {Uncertainty} {Model}},
	volume = {124},
	copyright = {©2019. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
	issn = {2169-8996},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2018JD029522},
	doi = {10.1029/2018JD029522},
	abstract = {We outline a new and improved uncertainty analysis for the Goddard Institute for Space Studies Surface Temperature product version 4 (GISTEMP v4). Historical spatial variations in surface temperature anomalies are derived from historical weather station data and ocean data from ships, buoys, and other sensors. Uncertainties arise from measurement uncertainty, changes in spatial coverage of the station record, and systematic biases due to technology shifts and land cover changes. Previously published uncertainty estimates for GISTEMP included only the effect of incomplete station coverage. Here, we update this term using currently available spatial distributions of source data, state-of-the-art reanalyses, and incorporate independently derived estimates for ocean data processing, station homogenization, and other structural biases. The resulting 95\% uncertainties are near 0.05 °C in the global annual mean for the last 50 years and increase going back further in time reaching 0.15 °C in 1880. In addition, we quantify the benefits and inherent uncertainty due to the GISTEMP interpolation and averaging method. We use the total uncertainties to estimate the probability for each record year in the GISTEMP to actually be the true record year (to that date) and conclude with 87\% likelihood that 2016 was indeed the hottest year of the instrumental period (so far).},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2020-03-19},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Lenssen, Nathan J. L. and Schmidt, Gavin A. and Hansen, James E. and Menne, Matthew J. and Persin, Avraham and Ruedy, Reto and Zyss, Daniel},
	year = {2019},
	note = {\_eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2018JD029522},
	pages = {6307--6326}
}

@misc{noauthor_pii_nodate,
	title = {{PII}: {S0305}-{750X}(00)00071-1 {\textbar} {Elsevier} {Enhanced} {Reader}},
	shorttitle = {{PII}},
	url = {https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0305750X00000711?token=E5BFFC968147D3E5A7273D1780C04F06B04263BBF06B6B9F2CD57B6ABBCE260AE860E529E76CD48F146EED9AC7AC2E72},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-03-14},
	doi = {10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00071-1},
	note = {Library Catalog: reader.elsevier.com}
}

@article{broome_discounting_1994,
	title = {Discounting the {Future}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {0048-3915},
	url = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/2265483},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2020-03-14},
	journal = {Philosophy \& Public Affairs},
	author = {Broome, John},
	year = {1994},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley},
	pages = {128--156}
}

@misc{noauthor_paris_nodate,
	title = {The {Paris} {Agreement} {\textbar} {UNFCCC}},
	url = {https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement},
	urldate = {2020-03-14}
}

@book{stern_economics_2007,
	title = {The {Economics} of {Climate} {Change}: {The} {Stern} {Review}},
	isbn = {978-0-521-70080-1},
	shorttitle = {The {Economics} of {Climate} {Change}},
	abstract = {There is now clear scientific evidence that emissions from economic activity, particularly the burning of fossil fuels for energy, are causing changes to the Earth's climate. A sound understanding of the economics of climate change is needed in order to underpin an effective global response to this challenge. The Stern Review is an independent, rigourous and comprehensive analysis of the economic aspects of this crucial issue. It has been conducted by Sir Nicholas Stern, Head of the UK Government Economic Service, and a former Chief Economist of the World Bank. The Economics of Climate Change will be invaluable for all students of the economics and policy implications of climate change, and economists, scientists and policy makers involved in all aspects of climate change.},
	language = {en},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Stern, Nicholas and Stern, Nicholas Herbert and Treasury, Great Britain},
	month = jan,
	year = {2007},
	keywords = {Business \& Economics / Economics / General, Science / Earth Sciences / Meteorology \& Climatology, Science / Environmental Science, Science / Global Warming \& Climate Change}
}

@article{fuss_negative_2018,
	title = {Negative emissions—{Part} 2: {Costs}, potentials and side effects},
	volume = {13},
	issn = {1748-9326},
	shorttitle = {Negative emissions—{Part} 2},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Faabf9f},
	doi = {10.1088/1748-9326/aabf9f},
	abstract = {The most recent IPCC assessment has shown an important role for negative emissions technologies (NETs) in limiting global warming to 2 °C cost-effectively. However, a bottom-up, systematic, reproducible, and transparent literature assessment of the different options to remove CO2 from the atmosphere is currently missing. In part 1 of this three-part review on NETs, we assemble a comprehensive set of the relevant literature so far published, focusing on seven technologies: bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), afforestation and reforestation, direct air carbon capture and storage (DACCS), enhanced weathering, ocean fertilisation, biochar, and soil carbon sequestration. In this part, part 2 of the review, we present estimates of costs, potentials, and side-effects for these technologies, and qualify them with the authors’ assessment. Part 3 reviews the innovation and scaling challenges that must be addressed to realise NETs deployment as a viable climate mitigation strategy. Based on a systematic review of the literature, our best estimates for sustainable global NET potentials in 2050 are 0.5–3.6 GtCO2 yr−1 for afforestation and reforestation, 0.5–5 GtCO2 yr−1 for BECCS, 0.5–2 GtCO2 yr−1 for biochar, 2–4 GtCO2 yr−1 for enhanced weathering, 0.5–5 GtCO2 yr−1 for DACCS, and up to 5 GtCO2 yr−1 for soil carbon sequestration. Costs vary widely across the technologies, as do their permanency and cumulative potentials beyond 2050. It is unlikely that a single NET will be able to sustainably meet the rates of carbon uptake described in integrated assessment pathways consistent with 1.5 °C of global warming.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2020-03-14},
	journal = {Environmental Research Letters},
	author = {Fuss, Sabine and Lamb, William F. and Callaghan, Max W. and Hilaire, Jérôme and Creutzig, Felix and Amann, Thorben and Beringer, Tim and Garcia, Wagner de Oliveira and Hartmann, Jens and Khanna, Tarun and Luderer, Gunnar and Nemet, Gregory F. and Rogelj, Joeri and Smith, Pete and Vicente, José Luis Vicente and Wilcox, Jennifer and Dominguez, Maria del Mar Zamora and Minx, Jan C.},
	month = may,
	year = {2018},
	note = {Publisher: IOP Publishing},
	pages = {063002}
}

@article{minx_negative_2018,
	title = {Negative emissions—{Part} 1: {Research} landscape and synthesis},
	volume = {13},
	issn = {1748-9326},
	shorttitle = {Negative emissions—{Part} 1},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Faabf9b},
	doi = {10.1088/1748-9326/aabf9b},
	abstract = {With the Paris Agreement’s ambition of limiting climate change to well below 2 °C, negative emission technologies (NETs) have moved into the limelight of discussions in climate science and policy. Despite several assessments, the current knowledge on NETs is still diffuse and incomplete, but also growing fast. Here, we synthesize a comprehensive body of NETs literature, using scientometric tools and performing an in-depth assessment of the quantitative and qualitative evidence therein. We clarify the role of NETs in climate change mitigation scenarios, their ethical implications, as well as the challenges involved in bringing the various NETs to the market and scaling them up in time. There are six major findings arising from our assessment: first, keeping warming below 1.5 °C requires the large-scale deployment of NETs, but this dependency can still be kept to a minimum for the 2 °C warming limit. Second, accounting for economic and biophysical limits, we identify relevant potentials for all NETs except ocean fertilization. Third, any single NET is unlikely to sustainably achieve the large NETs deployment observed in many 1.5 °C and 2 °C mitigation scenarios. Yet, portfolios of multiple NETs, each deployed at modest scales, could be invaluable for reaching the climate goals. Fourth, a substantial gap exists between the upscaling and rapid diffusion of NETs implied in scenarios and progress in actual innovation and deployment. If NETs are required at the scales currently discussed, the resulting urgency of implementation is currently neither reflected in science nor policy. Fifth, NETs face severe barriers to implementation and are only weakly incentivized so far. Finally, we identify distinct ethical discourses relevant for NETs, but highlight the need to root them firmly in the available evidence in order to render such discussions relevant in practice.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2020-03-14},
	journal = {Environmental Research Letters},
	author = {Minx, Jan C. and Lamb, William F. and Callaghan, Max W. and Fuss, Sabine and Hilaire, Jérôme and Creutzig, Felix and Amann, Thorben and Beringer, Tim and Garcia, Wagner de Oliveira and Hartmann, Jens and Khanna, Tarun and Lenzi, Dominic and Luderer, Gunnar and Nemet, Gregory F. and Rogelj, Joeri and Smith, Pete and Vicente, Jose Luis Vicente and Wilcox, Jennifer and Dominguez, Maria del Mar Zamora},
	month = may,
	year = {2018},
	note = {Publisher: IOP Publishing},
	pages = {063001}
}

@misc{noauthor_discounting_nodate,
	title = {Discounting the {Future} on {JSTOR}},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/2265483},
	abstract = {John Broome, Discounting the Future, Philosophy \& Public Affairs, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Spring, 1994), pp. 128-156},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-03-14},
	note = {Library Catalog: www-jstor-org.libproxy.mit.edu}
}

@article{newell_discounting_2003,
	title = {Discounting the distant future: how much do uncertain rates increase valuations?},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0095-0696},
	shorttitle = {Discounting the distant future},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0095069602000311},
	doi = {10.1016/S0095-0696(02)00031-1},
	abstract = {We demonstrate that when the future path of the discount rate is uncertain and highly correlated, the distant future should be discounted at significantly lower rates than suggested by the current rate. We then use two centuries of US interest rate data to quantify this effect. Using both random walk and mean-reverting models, we compute the “certainty-equivalent rate” that summarizes the effect of uncertainty and measures the appropriate forward rate of discount in the future. Under the random walk model we find that the certainty-equivalent rate falls continuously from 4\% to 2\% after 100 years, 1\% after 200 years, and 0.5\% after 300 years. At horizons of 400 years, the discounted value increases by a factor of over 40,000 relative to conventional discounting. Applied to climate change mitigation, we find that incorporating discount rate uncertainty almost doubles the expected present value of mitigation benefits.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2020-03-14},
	journal = {Journal of Environmental Economics and Management},
	author = {Newell, Richard G. and Pizer, William A.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2003},
	keywords = {Climate policy, Discounting, Interest rate forecasting, Intergenerational equity, Uncertainty},
	pages = {52--71}
}

@article{hammitt_sequential-decision_1992,
	title = {A sequential-decision strategy for abating climate change},
	volume = {357},
	copyright = {1992 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {1476-4687},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/357315a0},
	doi = {10.1038/357315a0},
	abstract = {CURRENT debate on policies for limiting climate change due to greenhouse-gas emissions focuses on whether to take action now or later, and on how stringent any emissions reductions should be in the near and long term. Any reductions policies implemented now will need to be revised later as scientific understanding of climate change improves. Here we consider the effects of a sequential-decision strategy (Fig. 1) consisting of a near-term period (1992–2002) during which either moderate emissions reductions (achieved by energy conservation only) or aggressive reductions (energy conservation coupled with switching to other fuel sources) are begun, and a subsequent long-term period during which a least-cost abatement policy is followed to limit global mean temperature change to an optimal target ΔT*. For each policy we calculate the global mean surface temperature change ΔT(t) using a simple climate/ocean model for climate sensitivities ΔT2x. (the response to doubled CO2, concentrations) of 4.5,2.5,1.5 and 0.5 °C. The policy beginning with moderate reductions is less expensive than that with aggressive reductions if ΔT*{\textgreater}2.9, 2.1, 1.5 and 0.9 °C respectively; otherwise, the aggressive-reductions policy is cheaper. We suggest that this approach should assist in choosing realistic targets and in determining how best to implement emissions reductions in the short and long term.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6376},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Hammitt, James K. and Lempert, Robert J. and Schlesinger, Michael E.},
	month = may,
	year = {1992},
	note = {Number: 6376
Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {315--318}
}

@article{hammitt_value_1996,
	title = {The value of international cooperation for abating global climate change},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {0928-7655},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0928765596000085},
	doi = {10.1016/S0928-7655(96)00008-5},
	abstract = {Because abatement of global climate change is a public good, independent national actions may not produce the efficient quantity. Using a numerical integrated-assessment model, abatement costs and damages induced by climate change are compared at the cooperative and noncooperative solutions to a set of two-party dynamic games between the industrialized and developing countries. Games with perfect and imperfect information about climate and economic factors are considered. Across 144 games with perfect information, incorporating different values of climate and economic parameters, the noncooperative solution usually yields global benefits comparable to those of the cooperative solution. In about one-fifth of these games, however, a second noncooperative solution exists which yields none of the benefits of the cooperative solution. In a game with imperfect information, where the state of nature is uncertain in the first but known in the second of two periods, the expected benefits of the noncooperative solution are 98\% of the expected benefits of the cooperative solution. In contrast to single-agent studies which show little cost to delaying abatement, the benefits of cooperation are usually lost if cooperation is delayed 20 years.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {Resource and Energy Economics},
	author = {Hammitt, James K and Adams, John L},
	month = oct,
	year = {1996},
	keywords = {Climate change, International agreements, Noncooperative games},
	pages = {219--241}
}

@article{hammitt_sequential-decision_1992-1,
	title = {A sequential-decision strategy for abating climate change},
	volume = {357},
	copyright = {1992 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {1476-4687},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/357315a0},
	doi = {10.1038/357315a0},
	abstract = {CURRENT debate on policies for limiting climate change due to greenhouse-gas emissions focuses on whether to take action now or later, and on how stringent any emissions reductions should be in the near and long term. Any reductions policies implemented now will need to be revised later as scientific understanding of climate change improves. Here we consider the effects of a sequential-decision strategy (Fig. 1) consisting of a near-term period (1992–2002) during which either moderate emissions reductions (achieved by energy conservation only) or aggressive reductions (energy conservation coupled with switching to other fuel sources) are begun, and a subsequent long-term period during which a least-cost abatement policy is followed to limit global mean temperature change to an optimal target ΔT*. For each policy we calculate the global mean surface temperature change ΔT(t) using a simple climate/ocean model for climate sensitivities ΔT2x. (the response to doubled CO2, concentrations) of 4.5,2.5,1.5 and 0.5 °C. The policy beginning with moderate reductions is less expensive than that with aggressive reductions if ΔT*{\textgreater}2.9, 2.1, 1.5 and 0.9 °C respectively; otherwise, the aggressive-reductions policy is cheaper. We suggest that this approach should assist in choosing realistic targets and in determining how best to implement emissions reductions in the short and long term.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6376},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Hammitt, James K. and Lempert, Robert J. and Schlesinger, Michael E.},
	month = may,
	year = {1992},
	note = {Number: 6376
Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {315--318}
}

@article{peck_uncertainty_1996,
	title = {Uncertainty and the {Value} of {Information} with {Stochastic} {Losses} from {Global} {Warming}},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {1539-6924},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1996.tb01453.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1539-6924.1996.tb01453.x},
	abstract = {We present an uncertainty analysis conducted using CETA-R, a model in which the costs of climate change are specified as Risks of large losses. In this analysis, we assume that three key parameters may each take on “high” or “low” values, leading to eight possible states of the world. We then explore optimal policies when the state of the world is known, and under uncertainty. Also, we estimate the benefits of resolving uncertainty earlier. We find that the optimal policy under uncertainty is similar to the policy that is optimal when each of the key parameters is at its low value. We also find that the value of immediate uncertainty resolution rises sharply as the alternative to immediate resolution is increasingly delayed resolution.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {Risk Analysis},
	author = {Peck, Stephen C. and Teisberg, Thomas J.},
	year = {1996},
	note = {\_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1996.tb01453.x},
	keywords = {Global warming, decision-making under uncertainty, integrated assessment, policy analysis, value of information},
	pages = {227--235}
}

@article{arrow_determining_2013,
	title = {Determining {Benefits} and {Costs} for {Future} {Generations}},
	volume = {341},
	copyright = {Copyright © 2013, American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://science.sciencemag.org/content/341/6144/349},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1235665},
	abstract = {The United States and others should consider adopting a different approach to estimating costs and benefits in light of uncertainty.
The United States and others should consider adopting a different approach to estimating costs and benefits in light of uncertainty.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6144},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Arrow, K. and Cropper, M. and Gollier, C. and Groom, B. and Heal, G. and Newell, R. and Nordhaus, W. and Pindyck, R. and Pizer, W. and Portney, P. and Sterner, T. and Tol, R. S. J. and Weitzman, M.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2013},
	pmid = {23888025},
	note = {Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science
Section: Policy Forum},
	pages = {349--350}
}

@article{newell_discounting_2003-1,
	title = {Discounting the distant future: how much do uncertain rates increase valuations?},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0095-0696},
	shorttitle = {Discounting the distant future},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0095069602000311},
	doi = {10.1016/S0095-0696(02)00031-1},
	abstract = {We demonstrate that when the future path of the discount rate is uncertain and highly correlated, the distant future should be discounted at significantly lower rates than suggested by the current rate. We then use two centuries of US interest rate data to quantify this effect. Using both random walk and mean-reverting models, we compute the “certainty-equivalent rate” that summarizes the effect of uncertainty and measures the appropriate forward rate of discount in the future. Under the random walk model we find that the certainty-equivalent rate falls continuously from 4\% to 2\% after 100 years, 1\% after 200 years, and 0.5\% after 300 years. At horizons of 400 years, the discounted value increases by a factor of over 40,000 relative to conventional discounting. Applied to climate change mitigation, we find that incorporating discount rate uncertainty almost doubles the expected present value of mitigation benefits.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {Journal of Environmental Economics and Management},
	author = {Newell, Richard G. and Pizer, William A.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2003},
	keywords = {Climate policy, Discounting, Interest rate forecasting, Intergenerational equity, Uncertainty},
	pages = {52--71}
}

@misc{noauthor_economics_nodate,
	title = {The economics of global warming - {William} {R}. {Cline} - {Google} {Books}},
	url = {https://books.google.com/books/about/The_economics_of_global_warming.html?id=9UOSAAAAIAAJ},
	urldate = {2020-03-13}
}

@book{cline_economics_1992,
	title = {The {Economics} of {Global} {Warming}},
	isbn = {978-0-88132-132-6},
	abstract = {This study examines the costs and benefits of an aggressive program of global action to limit greenhouse warming. An initial chapter summarizes the scientific issues from the standpoint of an economist. The analysis places heavy emphasis on efforts over a long run of 200 to 300 years, with much greater warming and damages than associated with the conventional benchmark (a doubling of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere). Estimates are presented for economic damages, ranging from agricultural losses and sea-level rise to loss of forests, water scarcity, electricity requirements for air conditioning, and several other major effects. A survey of existing model estimates provides the basis for calculation of costs of limiting emissions of greenhouse gases. After a review of the theory of term discounting in the context of very-long-term environmental issues, the study concludes with a cost-benefit estimate for international action and a discussion of policy measures to mobilize the global response.},
	publisher = {Peterson Institute for International Economics},
	author = {Cline, William R.},
	month = jun,
	year = {1992},
	note = {Pages: 416 Pages}
}

@techreport{cline_economics_1992-1,
	type = {Peterson {Institute} {Press}: {All} {Books}},
	title = {Economics of {Global} {Warming}, {The}},
	url = {https://econpapers.repec.org/bookchap/iieppress/39.htm},
	abstract = {This award-winning study examines the costs and benefits of an aggressive program of global action to limit greenhouse warming. An initial chapter summarizes the scientific issues from the standpoint of an economist. The analysis places heavy emphasis on effects over a long run of 200 to 300 years, with much greater warming damages than those associated with the conventional benchmark. * Estimates are presented for economic damages, ranging from agricultural losses and sea level rise to loss of forests, water scarcity, electricity requirements for air conditioning, and several other major effects. The study concludes with a cost- benefit estimate for international action and a discussion of policy measures to mobilize the global response. * Selected by Choice for its 1993 "Outstanding Academic Books" list and winner of the Harold and Margaret Sprout prize for the best book on international environmental affairs, awarded by the International Studies Association.},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	institution = {Peterson Institute for International Economics},
	author = {Cline, William},
	year = {1992},
	note = {ISBN: 9780881321326}
}

@article{ackerman_limitations_2009,
	title = {Limitations of integrated assessment models of climate change},
	volume = {95},
	issn = {1573-1480},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-009-9570-x},
	doi = {10.1007/s10584-009-9570-x},
	abstract = {The integrated assessment models (IAMs) that economists use to analyze the expected costs and benefits of climate policies frequently suggest that the “optimal” policy is to go slowly and to do relatively little in the near term to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. We trace this finding to the contestable assumptions and limitations of IAMs. For example, they typically discount future impacts from climate change at relatively high rates. This practice may be appropriate for short-term financial decisions but its extension to intergenerational environmental issues rests on several empirically and philosophically controversial hypotheses. IAMs also assign monetary values to the benefits of climate mitigation on the basis of incomplete information and sometimes speculative judgments concerning the monetary worth of human lives and ecosystems, while downplaying scientific uncertainty about the extent of expected damages. In addition, IAMs may exaggerate mitigation costs by failing to reflect the socially determined, path-dependent nature of technical change and ignoring the potential savings from reduced energy utilization and other opportunities for innovation. A better approach to climate policy, drawing on recent research on the economics of uncertainty, would reframe the problem as buying insurance against catastrophic, low-probability events. Policy decisions should be based on a judgment concerning the maximum tolerable increase in temperature and/or carbon dioxide levels given the state of scientific understanding. The appropriate role for economists would then be to determine the least-cost global strategy to achieve that target. While this remains a demanding and complex problem, it is far more tractable and epistemically defensible than the cost-benefit comparisons attempted by most IAMs.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {Climatic Change},
	author = {Ackerman, Frank and DeCanio, Stephen J. and Howarth, Richard B. and Sheeran, Kristen},
	month = aug,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {297--315}
}

@misc{noauthor_discounting_nodate-1,
	title = {Discounting the {Future} - {BROOME} - 1994 - {Philosophy} \&amp; {Public} {Affairs} - {Wiley} {Online} {Library}},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1088-4963.1994.tb00008.x},
	urldate = {2020-03-13}
}

@article{ramsey_mathematical_1928,
	title = {A {Mathematical} {Theory} of {Saving}},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {0013-0133},
	url = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/2224098},
	doi = {10.2307/2224098},
	number = {152},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {The Economic Journal},
	author = {Ramsey, F. P.},
	year = {1928},
	note = {Publisher: [Royal Economic Society, Wiley]},
	pages = {543--559}
}

@misc{noauthor_discounting_nodate-2,
	title = {Discounting the {Future} - {BROOME} - 1994 - {Philosophy} \&amp; {Public} {Affairs} - {Wiley} {Online} {Library}},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1088-4963.1994.tb00008.x},
	urldate = {2020-03-13}
}

@article{solow_economics_1974,
	title = {The {Economics} of {Resources} or the {Resources} of {Economics}},
	volume = {64},
	issn = {0002-8282},
	url = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/1816009},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {The American Economic Review},
	author = {Solow, Robert M.},
	year = {1974},
	note = {Publisher: American Economic Association},
	pages = {1--14}
}

@article{dasgupta_alternative_1974,
	title = {On some alternative criteria for justice between generations},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {0047-2727},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0047272774900073},
	doi = {10.1016/0047-2727(74)90007-3},
	abstract = {This paper is concerned with Rawls' principle of just savings. Both the intergenerational maxi–min solution and the Nash equilibrium are analyzed in the context of a simple growth model and a specific preference structure. The results are compared to the Utilitarian solution. The maxi–min solution is intertemporally inconsistent and all the Nash equilibria are Pareto inefficient. The latter part of the paper analyzes intergenarational strong equilibria, the α-core and the β-core. It is shown that for the model in question the set of strong equilibria is empty, and that both the α- and β-cores are roughly speaking equal to the set of all Pareto efficient programmes of accumulation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {Journal of Public Economics},
	author = {Dasgupta, Partha},
	month = nov,
	year = {1974},
	pages = {405--423}
}

@article{thompson_systems_2014,
	title = {A systems approach to evaluating the air quality co-benefits of {US} carbon policies},
	volume = {4},
	copyright = {2014 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {1758-6798},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2342},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate2342},
	abstract = {The near-term costs of greenhouse-gas emissions reduction may be offset by the air-quality co-benefits of mitigation policies. Now research estimates the monetary value of the human health benefits from air-quality improvements due to US carbon abatement policies, and finds that the benefits can offset 26–1,050\% of the cost of mitigation policies.},
	language = {en},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Thompson, Tammy M. and Rausch, Sebastian and Saari, Rebecca K. and Selin, Noelle E.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2014},
	note = {Number: 10
Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {917--923}
}

@article{solomon_irreversible_2009,
	title = {Irreversible climate change due to carbon dioxide emissions},
	volume = {106},
	copyright = {© 2009 by The National Academy of Sciences of the USA. Freely available online through the PNAS open access option.},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {https://www.pnas.org/content/106/6/1704},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.0812721106},
	abstract = {The severity of damaging human-induced climate change depends not only on the magnitude of the change but also on the potential for irreversibility. This paper shows that the climate change that takes place due to increases in carbon dioxide concentration is largely irreversible for 1,000 years after emissions stop. Following cessation of emissions, removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide decreases radiative forcing, but is largely compensated by slower loss of heat to the ocean, so that atmospheric temperatures do not drop significantly for at least 1,000 years. Among illustrative irreversible impacts that should be expected if atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations increase from current levels near 385 parts per million by volume (ppmv) to a peak of 450–600 ppmv over the coming century are irreversible dry-season rainfall reductions in several regions comparable to those of the “dust bowl” era and inexorable sea level rise. Thermal expansion of the warming ocean provides a conservative lower limit to irreversible global average sea level rise of at least 0.4–1.0 m if 21st century CO2 concentrations exceed 600 ppmv and 0.6–1.9 m for peak CO2 concentrations exceeding ≈1,000 ppmv. Additional contributions from glaciers and ice sheet contributions to future sea level rise are uncertain but may equal or exceed several meters over the next millennium or longer.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2020-03-13},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Solomon, Susan and Plattner, Gian-Kasper and Knutti, Reto and Friedlingstein, Pierre},
	month = feb,
	year = {2009},
	pmid = {19179281},
	note = {Publisher: National Academy of Sciences
Section: Physical Sciences},
	keywords = {dangerous interference, precipitation, sea level rise, warming},
	pages = {1704--1709}
}

@article{gregory_vertical_2000,
	title = {Vertical heat transports in the ocean and their effect on time-dependent climate change},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {1432-0894},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s003820000059},
	doi = {10.1007/s003820000059},
	abstract = {In response to increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, the rate of time-dependent climate change is determined jointly by the strength of climate feedbacks and the efficiency of processes which remove heat from the surface into the deep ocean. This work examines the vertical heat transport processes in the ocean of the HADCM2 atmosphere–ocean general circulation model (AOGCM) in experiments with CO2 held constant (control) and increasing at 1 per year (anomaly). The control experiment shows that global average heat exchanges between the upper and lower ocean are dominated by the Southern Ocean, where heat is pumped downwards by the wind-driven circulation and diffuses upwards along sloping isopycnals. This is the reverse of the low-latitude balance used in upwelling–diffusion ocean models, the global average upward diffusive transport being against the temperature gradient. In the anomaly experiment, weakened convection at high latitudes leads to reduced diffusive and convective heat loss from the deep ocean, and hence to net heat uptake, since the advective heat input is less affected. Reduction of deep water production at high latitudes results in reduced upwelling of cold water at low latitudes, giving a further contribution to net heat uptake. On the global average, high-latitude processes thus have a controlling influence. The important role of diffusion highlights the need to ensure that the schemes employed in AOGCMs give an accurate representation of the relevant sub-grid-scale processes.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2020-03-08},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Gregory, J. M.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2000},
	pages = {501--515}
}

@article{held_probing_2010,
	title = {Probing the {Fast} and {Slow} {Components} of {Global} {Warming} by {Returning} {Abruptly} to {Preindustrial} {Forcing}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/2009JCLI3466.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JCLI3466.1},
	abstract = {The fast and slow components of global warming in a comprehensive climate model are isolated by examining the response to an instantaneous return to preindustrial forcing. The response is characterized by an initial fast exponential decay with an e-folding time smaller than 5 yr, leaving behind a remnant that evolves more slowly. The slow component is estimated to be small at present, as measured by the global mean near-surface air temperature, and, in the model examined, grows to 0.4°C by 2100 in the A1B scenario from the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES), and then to 1.4°C by 2300 if one holds radiative forcing fixed after 2100. The dominance of the fast component at present is supported by examining the response to an instantaneous doubling of CO2 and by the excellent fit to the model’s ensemble mean twentieth-century evolution with a simple one-box model with no long times scales.},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2020-03-08},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Held, Isaac M. and Winton, Michael and Takahashi, Ken and Delworth, Thomas and Zeng, Fanrong and Vallis, Geoffrey K.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {2418--2427}
}

@article{gregory_transient_2008,
	title = {Transient climate response estimated from radiative forcing and observed temperature change},
	volume = {113},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2008JD010405},
	doi = {10.1029/2008JD010405},
	abstract = {Observations and simulations (using the HadCM3 AOGCM) of time-dependent twentieth-century climate change indicate a linear relationship F = ρΔT between radiative forcing F and global mean surface air temperature change ΔT. The same is a good description of ΔT from CMIP3 AOGCMs integrated with CO2 increasing at 1\% per year compounded. The constant “climate resistance” ρ is related to the transient climate response (TCR, ΔT at the time of doubled CO2 under the 1\% CO2 scenario). Disregarding any trend caused by natural forcing (volcanic and solar), which is small compared with the trend in anthropogenic forcing, we estimate that the real-world TCR is 1.3–2.3 K (5–95\% uncertainty range) from the data of 1970–2006, allowing for the effect of unforced variability on longer timescales. The climate response to episodic volcanic forcing cannot be described by the same relationship and merits further investigation; this constitutes a systematic uncertainty of the method. The method is quite insensitive to the anthropogenic aerosol forcing, which probably did not vary much during 1970–2006 and therefore did not affect the trend in ΔT. Our range is very similar to the range of recent AOGCM results for the TCR. Consequently projections for warming during the twenty-first century under the SRES A1B emissions scenario made using the simple empirical relationship F = ρΔT agree with the range of AOGCM results for that scenario. Our TCR range is also similar to those from observationally constrained model-based methods.},
	language = {en},
	number = {D23},
	urldate = {2020-03-08},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Gregory, J. M. and Forster, P. M.},
	year = {2008},
	keywords = {Transient, climate, response}
}

@article{glotter_simple_2014,
	title = {A simple carbon cycle representation for economic and policy analyses},
	volume = {126},
	issn = {1573-1480},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1224-y},
	doi = {10.1007/s10584-014-1224-y},
	abstract = {Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) that couple the climate system and the economy require a representation of ocean CO2 uptake to translate human-produced emissions to atmospheric concentrations and in turn to climate change. The simple linear carbon cycle representations in most IAMs are not however physical at long timescales, since ocean carbonate chemistry makes CO2 uptake highly nonlinear. No linearized representation can capture the ocean’s dual-mode behavior, with initial rapid uptake and then slow equilibration over ∽10,000 years. In a business-as-usual scenario followed by cessation of emissions, the carbon cycle in the 2007 version of the most widely used IAM, DICE (Dynamic Integrated model of Climate and the Economy), produces errors of ∽2∘C by the year 2300 and ∽6∘C by the year 3500. We suggest here a simple alternative representation that captures the relevant physics and show that it reproduces carbon uptake in several more complex models to within the inter-model spread. The scheme involves little additional complexity over the DICE model, making it a useful tool for economic and policy analyses.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2020-03-08},
	journal = {Climatic Change},
	author = {Glotter, Michael J. and Pierrehumbert, Raymond T. and Elliott, Joshua W. and Matteson, Nathan J. and Moyer, Elisabeth J.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {319--335}
}

@misc{noauthor_zotero_nodate,
	title = {Zotero {\textbar} {Your} personal research assistant},
	url = {https://www.zotero.org/},
	urldate = {2020-03-08}
}

@article{walin_relation_1982,
	title = {On the relation between sea-surface heat flow and thermal circulation in the ocean},
	volume = {34},
	issn = {0040-2826},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v34i2.10801},
	doi = {10.3402/tellusa.v34i2.10801},
	abstract = {A theoretical framework for the description of the thermal state and circulation in the ocean is presented. Relations between differential heating, diffusive heat flux and surface drift are derived and discussed in the light of the basic mechanical property of the system, i.e. the tendency for light water to spread on top of heavier water. We find that for low and medium temperatures, the poleward surface drift can be determined directly from a knowledge of the heat flux through the sea surface. Preliminary quantitative estimates indicate that the “Hadley circulation” for the entire ocean involves a volume flux of order 70 ± 30 Sverdrup. For the North Atlantic we find a poleward drift of order 10 Sverdrup which compares well with previous estimates of the southward deep flow. Mean values for the diffusive flux in the ocean are found to be of order 20 W m-2 at 15°C and 60 W m-2 at 25°C.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2020-02-10},
	journal = {Tellus},
	author = {Walin, GöSta},
	month = jan,
	year = {1982},
	pages = {187--195}
}

@article{gill_hydraulics_1977,
	title = {The hydraulics of rotating-channel flow},
	volume = {80},
	issn = {1469-7645, 0022-1120},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-fluid-mechanics/article/hydraulics-of-rotatingchannel-flow/9F60E4E7F489AB8B0E6A29F722F1913F},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112077002407},
	abstract = {Flow of a homogeneous inviscid fluid down a rotating channel of slowly varying crosssection is considered, with particular reference to conditions under which the flow is ‘hydraulically controlled’. This problem is a member of a general class of problems of which gas flow through a nozzle and flow over a broad-crested weir are examples (Binnie 1949). A general discussion of such problems gives the means for determining the position of the control section (which is generally flow dependent) and shows that at this position there always exist long-wave disturbances with zero phase speed (i.e. disturbances are always ‘critical’ at the control section). The general theory is applied to the rotating-channel problem for the case of uniform potential vorticity. For this problem, three parameters are needed to specify the upstream flow, and the control theory gives a relationship between these parameters which depends on the geometry of the channel.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2020-01-29},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Gill, A. E.},
	month = may,
	year = {1977},
	pages = {641--671}
}

@book{pratt_rotating_2008,
	title = {Rotating {Hydraulics}: {Nonlinear} {Topographic} {Effects} in the {Ocean} and {Atmosphere}},
	shorttitle = {Rotating {Hydraulics}},
	author = {Pratt, Larry and Whitehead, J. A},
	month = jan,
	year = {2008}
}

@article{pratt_hydraulic_1987,
	title = {Hydraulic {Control} of {Flows} with {Nonuniform} {Potential} {Vorticity}},
	volume = {17},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485(1987)017%3C2016:HCOFWN%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1987)017<2016:HCOFWN>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The hydraulics of flow contained in a channel and having nonuniform potential vorticity is considered from a general standpoint. The channel cross section is rectangular and the potential vorticity is assumed to be prescribed in terms of the streamfunction. We show that the general computational problem can be expressed in two traditional forms, the first of which consists of an algebraic relation between the channel geometry and a single dependent flow variable and the second of which consists of a pair of quasi-linear differential equations relating the geometry to two dependent flow variables. From these forms we derive a general “branch condition” indicating a merger of different solutions having the same flow rate and energy and show that this condition implies that the flow is critical with respect to a certain long wave. It is shown that critical flow can occur only at the sill in a channel of constant width (with one exception) at a point of width extremum in a flat bottom channel. We also discuss the situation in which the fluid becomes detached from one of sidewalls. An example is given in which the potential vorticity is a linear function of the streamfunction and the rotation rate is zero, a case which can be solved analytically. When the potential vorticity gradient points downstream, allowing propagation of potential vorticity waves against the flow, multiple pairs of steady states are possible, each having a unique modal structure. Critical control of the higher-mode solutions is primarily over vorticity, rather than depth. Flow reversals arise in some situations, possible invalidating the prescription of potential vorticity.},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2020-01-29},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Pratt, Lawrence J. and Armi, Laurence},
	month = nov,
	year = {1987},
	pages = {2016--2029}
}

@article{willmott_advantages_2005,
	title = {Advantages of the mean absolute error ({MAE}) over the root mean square error ({RMSE}) in assessing average model performance},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {0936-577X, 1616-1572},
	url = {https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/cr/v30/n1/p79-82/},
	doi = {10.3354/cr030079},
	abstract = {The relative abilities of 2, dimensioned statistics—the root-mean-square error (RMSE) and the mean absolute error (MAE)—to describe average model-performance error are examined. The RMSE is of special interest because it is widely reported in the climatic and environmental literature; nevertheless, it is an inappropriate and misinterpreted measure of average error. RMSE is inappropriate because it is a function of 3 characteristics of a set of errors, rather than of one (the average error). RMSE varies with the variability within the distribution of error magnitudes and with the square root of the number of errors (n1/2), as well as with the average-error magnitude (MAE). Our findings indicate that MAE is a more natural measure of average error, and (unlike RMSE) is unambiguous. Dimensioned evaluations and inter-comparisons of average model-performance error, therefore, should be based on MAE.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-12-16},
	journal = {Climate Research},
	author = {Willmott, Cort J. and Matsuura, Kenji},
	month = dec,
	year = {2005},
	keywords = {Mean absolute error, Model-performance measures, Root-mean-square error},
	pages = {79--82}
}

@article{cimoli_sensitivity_2019,
	title = {Sensitivity of deep ocean mixing to local internal tide breaking and mixing efficiency},
	volume = {n/a},
	copyright = {This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2019GL085056},
	doi = {10.1029/2019GL085056},
	abstract = {There have been recent advancements in the quantification of parameters describing the proportion of internal tide energy being dissipated locally and the “efficiency” of diapycnal mixing, i.e. the ratio of the diapycnal mixing rate to the kinetic energy dissipation rate. We show that oceanic tidal mixing is non-trivially sensitive to the co-variation of these parameters. Varying these parameters one at the time can lead to significant errors in the patterns of diapycnal mixing driven upwelling and downwelling, and to the over and under estimation of mixing in such a way that the net rate of globally-integrated deep circulation appears reasonable. However, the local rates of upwelling and downwelling in the deep ocean are significantly different when both parameters are allowed to co-vary and be spatially variable. These findings have important implications for the representation of oceanic heat, carbon, nutrients and other tracer budgets in general circulation models.},
	language = {en},
	number = {n/a},
	urldate = {2019-12-13},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Cimoli, Laura and Caulfield, Colm-cille P. and Johnson, Helen L. and Marshall, David P. and Mashayek, Ali and Garabato, Alberto C. Naveira and Vic, Clément},
	month = dec,
	year = {2019}
}

@article{nikurashin_global_2011,
	title = {Global energy conversion rate from geostrophic flows into internal lee waves in the deep ocean},
	volume = {38},
	copyright = {Copyright 2011 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2011GL046576},
	doi = {10.1029/2011GL046576},
	abstract = {A global estimate of the energy conversion rate from geostrophic flows into internal lee waves in the ocean is presented. The estimate is based on a linear theory applied to bottom topography at O(1–10) km scales obtained from single beam echo soundings, to bottom stratification estimated from climatology, and to bottom velocity obtained from a global ocean model. The total energy flux into internal lee waves is estimated to be 0.2 TW which is 20\% of the global wind power input into the ocean. The geographical distribution of the energy flux is largest in the Southern Ocean which accounts for half of the total energy flux. The results suggest that the generation of internal lee waves at rough topography is a significant energy sink for the geostrophic flows as well as an important energy source for internal waves and the associated turbulent mixing in the deep ocean.},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-12-02},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Nikurashin, Maxim and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {abyssal mixing, geostrophic eddies, internal waves, lee waves, overturning circulation, topographic waves}
}

@article{nycander_generation_2005,
	title = {Generation of internal waves in the deep ocean by tides},
	volume = {110},
	copyright = {Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2004JC002487},
	doi = {10.1029/2004JC002487},
	abstract = {A direct computation of the tidal generation of internal waves over the global ocean is presented. It is based on linear wave theory and high-resolution data for the bottom topography. The geographical distribution of the energy flux from tides to internal waves is determined with a spatial resolution of a few kilometers. The total flux over the area with a depth greater than 500 m is found to be 1.2 TW. The greatest uncertainties of the computation are due to unresolved topography and to nonlinear effects caused by supercritical bottom slope.},
	language = {en},
	number = {C10},
	urldate = {2019-12-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Nycander, J.},
	year = {2005},
	keywords = {internal waves, tides, vertical mixing}
}

@article{holden_plasimgenie_2016,
	title = {{PLASIM}–{GENIE} v1.0: a new intermediate complexity {AOGCM}},
	volume = {9},
	issn = {1991-959X},
	shorttitle = {{PLASIM}–{GENIE} v1.0},
	url = {https://www.geosci-model-dev.net/9/3347/2016/},
	doi = {https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-3347-2016},
	abstract = {{\textless}p{\textgreater}{\textless}strong{\textgreater}Abstract.{\textless}/strong{\textgreater} We describe the development, tuning and climate of Planet Simulator (PLASIM)–Grid-ENabled Integrated Earth system model (GENIE), a new intermediate complexity Atmosphere–Ocean General Circulation Model (AOGCM), built by coupling the Planet Simulator to the ocean, sea-ice and land-surface components of the GENIE Earth system model. PLASIM–GENIE supersedes GENIE-2, a coupling of GENIE to the Reading Intermediate General Circulation Model (IGCM). The primitive-equation atmosphere includes chaotic, three-dimensional (3-D) motion and interactive radiation and clouds, and dominates the computational load compared to the relatively simpler frictional-geostrophic ocean, which neglects momentum advection. The model is most appropriate for long-timescale or large ensemble studies where numerical efficiency is prioritised, but lack of data necessitates an internally consistent, coupled calculation of both oceanic and atmospheric fields. A 1000-year simulation with PLASIM–GENIE requires approximately 2 weeks on a single node of a 2.1 GHz AMD 6172 CPU. We demonstrate the tractability of PLASIM–GENIE ensembles by deriving a subjective tuning of the model with a 50-member ensemble of 1000-year simulations. The simulated climate is presented considering (i) global fields of seasonal surface air temperature, precipitation, wind, solar and thermal radiation, with comparisons to reanalysis data; (ii) vegetation carbon, soil moisture and aridity index; and (iii) sea surface temperature, salinity and ocean circulation. Considering its resolution, PLASIM–GENIE reproduces the main features of the climate system well and demonstrates usefulness for a wide range of applications.{\textless}/p{\textgreater}},
	language = {English},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2019-11-18},
	journal = {Geoscientific Model Development},
	author = {Holden, Philip B. and Edwards, Neil R. and Fraedrich, Klaus and Kirk, Edilbert and Lunkeit, Frank and Zhu, Xiuhua},
	month = sep,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {3347--3361}
}

@article{gent_isopycnal_1990,
	title = {Isopycnal {Mixing} in {Ocean} {Circulation} {Models}},
	volume = {20},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485(1990)020%3C0150:IMIOCM%3E2.0.CO;2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1990)020<0150:IMIOCM>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract A subgrid-scale form for mesoscale eddy mixing on isopycnal surfaces is proposed for use in non-eddy-resolving ocean circulation models. The mixing is applied in isopycnal coordinates to isopycnal layer thickness, or inverse density gradient, as well as to passive scalars, temperature and salinity. The transformation of these mixing forms to physical coordinates is also presented.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Gent, Peter R. and McWilliams, James C.},
	year = {1990},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	pages = {150--155}
}

@article{stommel_abyssal_1959,
	title = {On the abyssal circulation of the world ocean — {II}. {An} idealized model of the circulation pattern and amplitude in oceanic basins},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {0146-6313},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0146631359900759},
	doi = {10.1016/0146-6313(59)90075-9},
	abstract = {Stationary planetary flow patterns driven by source sink distributions in an ocean on the rotating earth were developed in Part I. These theoretical results are now used to construct a highly idealized model of the general abyssal circulation of the world ocean. The model is based on the postulation of the existence of two concentrated sources of abyssal waters (one in the North Atlantic and another in the Weddell Sea) and on a uniformly distributed upward flux of water from the abyssal to the upper layers as part of the mechanism of the main oceanic thermocline. Order of magnitude calculations based on this model lead to a variety of estimates of the time in which the deep water is replaced (from every 200 to 1800 years). Comparison of leading terms in the dynamical equations and equation describing the flux divergence of a tracer shows that there is a large range of lateral eddy coefficient which will influence the distribution of the tracer but not affect the dynamically determined planetary flow patterns.},
	urldate = {2019-07-18},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research (1953)},
	author = {Stommel, Henry and Arons, A. B.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1959},
	pages = {217--233}
}

@article{stommel_abyssal_1959-1,
	title = {On the abyssal circulation of the world ocean—{I}. {Stationary} planetary flow patterns on a sphere},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {0146-6313},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0146631359900656},
	doi = {10.1016/0146-6313(59)90065-6},
	abstract = {A treatment of stationary planetary flow patterns driven by source-sink distributions in a cylindrical tank (Stommel et al., 1958) is extended to predict flow patterns which might be expected under similar circumstances on a rotating sphere. Flow patterns are sketched for various source-sink distributions and meridional and zonal boundary conditions.},
	urldate = {2019-09-18},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research (1953)},
	author = {Stommel, Henry and Arons, A. B.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1959},
	pages = {140--154}
}

@article{hogg_transport_1982,
	title = {On the {Transport} and {Modification} of {Antarctic} {Bottom} {Water} in the {Vema} {Channel}},
	volume = {40},
	abstract = {The Vema Channel is a deep passage across the Rio Grande Rise in the South Atlantic through which Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) must flow on its way northward from the Argentine Basin to the Brazil Basin and eventually into the North Atlantic. Both dynamic computation and direct current measurement based on recently acquired data indicate that the volume transport of AABW is about 4 x 10(6) m(3)/sec northward with a standard deviation of about 1.2 x 10(6) m(3)/sec. There are no known exits for AABW below 1 degrees C out of the Brazil Basin and it is estimated by heat flux balance that if AABW leaves this basin across isopycnals, a diffusion rate of 3-4 cm(2)/sec so directed is required. There is a sharp water mass transition between the two basins across the Rio Grande Rise with AABW in the Argentine Basin being distinctively fresher and colder in the potential temperature range from 0.2 degrees C to 2.0 degrees C at the same density. Cold tongues of fresh water advected into the Vema Channel may be thoroughly mixed by lateral eddy diffusion at a rate estimated to be 4 x 10(6) cm(2)/sec. This process demands a supply of Brazil Basin AABW from the north consistent with an observed weak southward flow to the east of the much more intense northward jet. Isopycnals show a reversal in slope with depth within the channel (but not outside) such that the coldest water is in the west at shallow AABW depths but in the east near the. bottom. East of the channel axis there are thick bottom boundary layers which are nearly homogeneous in the vertical but horizontally stratified. We suggest a dynamical, nonmixing, mechanism for producing these features. Dissolved silicate measurements reveal a filament of low concentration, presumably North Atlantic Deep Water, which is located over the channel axis at 2500 m depth. This is some 1000 m above the Rio Grande Rise and 2000 m above the Channel floor.},
	journal = {J. Mar. Res.},
	author = {Hogg, Nelson and Biscaye, P.E. and Gardner, Wilford and Jr, W},
	month = jan,
	year = {1982},
	pages = {231--263}
}

@article{nikurashin_radiation_2009,
	title = {Radiation and {Dissipation} of {Internal} {Waves} {Generated} by {Geostrophic} {Motions} {Impinging} on {Small}-{Scale} {Topography}: {Theory}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	shorttitle = {Radiation and {Dissipation} of {Internal} {Waves} {Generated} by {Geostrophic} {Motions} {Impinging} on {Small}-{Scale} {Topography}},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/2009JPO4199.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JPO4199.1},
	abstract = {Observations and inverse models suggest that small-scale turbulent mixing is enhanced in the Southern Ocean in regions above rough topography. The enhancement extends O(1) km above the topography, suggesting that mixing is supported by the breaking of gravity waves radiated from the ocean bottom. In this study, it is shown that the observed mixing rates can be sustained by internal waves generated by geostrophic motions flowing over bottom topography. Weakly nonlinear theory is used to describe the internal wave generation and the feedback of the waves on the zonally averaged flow. Vigorous inertial oscillations are driven at the ocean bottom by waves generated at steep topography. The wave radiation and dissipation at equilibrium is therefore the result of both geostrophic flow and inertial oscillations differing substantially from the classical lee-wave problem. The theoretical predictions are tested versus two-dimensional high-resolution numerical simulations with parameters representative of Drake Passage. This work suggests that mixing in Drake Passage can be supported by geostrophic motions impinging on rough topography rather than by barotropic tidal motions, as is commonly assumed.},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-09-25},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Nikurashin, Maxim and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	month = nov,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {1055--1074}
}

@article{young_exact_2011,
	title = {An {Exact} {Thickness}-{Weighted} {Average} {Formulation} of the {Boussinesq} {Equations}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/JPO-D-11-0102.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-11-0102.1},
	abstract = {The author shows that a systematic application of thickness-weighted averaging to the Boussinesq equations of motion results in averaged equations of motion written entirely in terms of the thickness-weighted velocity; that is, the unweighted average velocity and the eddy-induced velocity do not appear in the averaged equations of motion. This thickness-weighted average (TWA) formulation is identical to the unaveraged equations, apart from eddy forcing by the divergence of three-dimensional Eliassen–Palm (EP) vectors in the two horizontal momentum equations. These EP vectors are second order in eddy amplitude and, moreover, the EP divergences can be expressed in terms of the eddy flux of the Rossby–Ertel potential vorticity derived from the TWA equations of motion. That is, there is a fully nonlinear and three-dimensional generalization of the one- and two-dimensional identities found by Taylor and Bretherton. The only assumption required to obtain this exact TWA formulation is that the buoyancy field is stacked vertically; that is, that the buoyancy frequency is never zero. Thus, the TWA formulation applies to nonrotating stably stratified turbulent flows, as well as to large-scale rapidly rotating flows. Though the TWA formulation is obtained by working on the equations of motion in buoyancy coordinates, the averaged equations of motion can then be translated into Cartesian coordinates, which is the most useful representation for many purposes.},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-09-23},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Young, William R.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {692--707}
}

@article{salmun_two-dimensional_1991,
	title = {A two-dimensional model of boundary mixing},
	volume = {96},
	copyright = {Copyright 1991 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/91JC01917},
	doi = {10.1029/91JC01917},
	abstract = {The steady flow in and near a turbulent boundary layer on a sloping boundary is considered, for a nonrotating stratified fluid. It is shown that the effect of nonuniform stratification in the interior (i.e., away from the turbulent layer) is to induce a convergent-divergent flow in the boundary layer which results in an inflow or outflow to the interior. This inflow-outflow acts in a divergent-convergent manner on the interior isopycnals. Use of a filling-box argument for the slow time variation of the interior then produces an approximate expression for an effective interior vertical diffusivity. The parameter dependence of this diffusivity is very strong; however, with realistic geophysical values (subject to the omission of rotation), e.g., a mixed layer depth of 50 m, Munk's canonical value of 10−4 m2 s−1 can easily be achieved. This work thus supports the view that boundary mixing is likely to be an important process in setting the vertical density profile in the ocean.},
	language = {en},
	number = {C10},
	urldate = {2019-09-23},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Salmun, Haydee and Killworth, Peter D. and Blundell, Jeffrey R.},
	year = {1991},
	pages = {18447--18474}
}
@article{salmon_two-layer_1992,
	title = {A two-layer {Gulf} {Stream} over a continental slope},
	volume = {50},
	issn = {00222402, 15439542},
	url = {http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/xref?genre=article&issn=0022-2402&volume=50&issue=3&spage=341},
	doi = {10.1357/002224092784797610},
	abstract = {We consider the two-layer form of the planetary geostrophic equations, in which a simple Rayleigh friction replaces the inertia, on a western continental slope. In the frictionless limit, these equations can be written as characteristic equations in which the potential vorticities of the top and bottom layers play the role of Riemann invariants. The general solution is of two types. In the first type, the characteristics can cross, and friction is required to resolve the resulting shocks. In the second type, one of the two Riemann invariants is uniform, the remaining characteristic is a line of constantftH, and the solutions take a simple explicit form. A solution resembling the Gulf Stream can be formed by combining three solutions of the second type. Compared to the corresponding solution for homogeneous fluid, the Gulf Stream and its seaward countercurrent are stronger, and the latter is concentrated in a thin frictional layer on the eastern edge of the Stream.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-09-23},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	author = {Salmon, Rick},
	month = aug,
	year = {1992},
	pages = {341--365}
}

@book{grinfeld_introduction_2013,
	address = {New York},
	title = {Introduction to {Tensor} {Analysis} and the {Calculus} of {Moving} {Surfaces}},
	isbn = {978-1-4614-7866-9},
	url = {https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9781461478669},
	abstract = {This textbook is distinguished from other texts on the subject by the depth of the presentation and the discussion of the calculus of moving surfaces, which is an extension of tensor calculus to deforming manifolds. Designed for advanced undergraduate and graduate students, this text invites its audience to take a fresh look at previously learned material through the prism of tensor calculus. Once the framework is mastered, the student is introduced to new material which includes differential geometry on manifolds, shape optimization, boundary perturbation and dynamic fluid film equations. The language of tensors, originally championed by Einstein, is as fundamental as the languages of calculus and linear algebra and is one that every technical scientist ought to speak. The tensor technique, invented at the turn of the 20th century, is now considered classical. Yet, as the author shows, it remains remarkably vital and relevant. The author’s skilled lecturing capabilities are evident by the inclusion of insightful examples and a plethora of exercises. A great deal of material is devoted to the geometric fundamentals, the mechanics of change of variables, the proper use of the tensor notation and the discussion of the interplay between algebra and geometry. The early chapters have many words and few equations. The definition of a tensor comes only in Chapter 6 – when the reader is ready for it. While this text maintains a consistent level of rigor, it takes great care to avoid formalizing the subject. The last part of the textbook is devoted to the Calculus of Moving Surfaces. It is the first textbook exposition of this important technique and is one of the gems of this text. A number of exciting applications of the calculus are presented including shape optimization, boundary perturbation of boundary value problems and dynamic fluid film equations developed by the author in recent years. Furthermore, the moving surfaces framework is used to offer new derivations of classical results such as the geodesic equation and the celebrated Gauss-Bonnet theorem.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-09-20},
	publisher = {Springer-Verlag},
	author = {Grinfeld, Pavel},
	year = {2013}
}

@article{bezanson_julia:_2017,
	title = {Julia: {A} {Fresh} {Approach} to {Numerical} {Computing}},
	volume = {59},
	issn = {0036-1445},
	shorttitle = {Julia},
	url = {https://epubs.siam.org/doi/10.1137/141000671},
	doi = {10.1137/141000671},
	abstract = {Bridging cultures that have often been distant, Julia combines expertise from the diverse fields of computer science and computational science to create a new approach to numerical  computing. Julia is  designed to be easy and fast and questions notions generally held to be “laws of nature"  by practitioners of numerical computing: {\textbackslash}beginlist {\textbackslash}item  High-level dynamic programs have to be slow. {\textbackslash}item  One must prototype in one language and then rewrite in another language for speed or deployment. {\textbackslash}item There are parts of a system appropriate for the programmer, and other parts that are best left untouched as they have been built by the experts. {\textbackslash}endlist We introduce the  Julia programming language and its design---a  dance between specialization and abstraction. Specialization allows for custom treatment. Multiple dispatch,  a  technique from computer science, picks  the right algorithm for the right circumstance. Abstraction, which is what good computation is really about, recognizes what remains the same after differences are stripped away. Abstractions in mathematics are captured as code through another technique from computer science, generic programming. Julia shows that  one can achieve machine performance without sacrificing human convenience.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-09-20},
	journal = {SIAM Review},
	author = {Bezanson, J. and Edelman, A. and Karpinski, S. and Shah, V.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {65--98}
}

@article{hines_role_2019,
	title = {The {Role} of the {Southern} {Ocean} in {Abrupt} {Transitions} and {Hysteresis} in {Glacial} {Ocean} {Circulation}},
	volume = {34},
	copyright = {©2019. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
	issn = {2572-4525},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2018PA003415},
	doi = {10.1029/2018PA003415},
	abstract = {High-latitude Northern Hemisphere climate during the last glacial period was characterized by a series of abrupt climate changes, known as Dansgaard-Oeschger events, which were recorded in Greenland ice cores as shifts in the oxygen isotopic composition of the ice. These shifts in inferred Northern Hemisphere high-latitude temperature have been linked to changes in Atlantic meridional overturning strength. The response of ocean overturning circulation to forcing is nonlinear and a hierarchy of models have suggested that it may exist in multiple steady state configurations. Here, we use a time-dependent coarse-resolution isopycnal model with four density classes and two basins, linked by a Southern Ocean to explore overturning states and their stability to changes in external parameters. The model exhibits hysteresis in both the steady state stratification and overturning strength as a function of the magnitude of North Atlantic Deep Water formation. Hysteresis occurs as a result of two nonlinearities in the model—the surface buoyancy distribution in the Southern Ocean and the vertical diffusivity profile in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific basins. We construct a metric to assess circulation configuration in the model, motivated by observations from the Last Glacial Maximum, which show a different circulation structure from the modern. We find that circulation configuration is primarily determined by North Atlantic Deep Water density. The model results are used to suggest how ocean conditions may have influenced the pattern of Dansgaard-Oeschger events across the last glacial cycle.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-09-18},
	journal = {Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology},
	author = {Hines, Sophia K. V. and Thompson, Andrew F. and Adkins, Jess F.},
	year = {2019},
	keywords = {abrupt climate change, glacial ocean circulation, hysteresis, ocean circulation},
	pages = {490--510}
}

@misc{noauthor_note_nodate,
	title = {A {Note} on the {Western} {Intensification} of the {Oceanic} {Circulation}. {\textbar} {National} {Technical} {Reports} {Library} - {NTIS}},
	url = {https://ntrl.ntis.gov/NTRL/dashboard/searchResults/titleDetail/AD641732.xhtml},
	urldate = {2019-09-09}
}

@article{abernathey_diagnostics_2013,
	title = {Diagnostics of isopycnal mixing in a circumpolar channel},
	volume = {72},
	issn = {1463-5003},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1463500313001200},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2013.07.004},
	abstract = {Mesoscale eddies mix tracers along isopycnals and horizontally at the sea surface. This paper compares different methods of diagnosing eddy mixing rates in an idealized, eddy-resolving model of a channel flow meant to resemble the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The first set of methods, the “perfect” diagnostics, are techniques suitable only to numerical models, in which detailed synoptic data is available. The perfect diagnostic include flux-gradient diffusivities of buoyancy, QGPV, and Ertel PV; Nakamura effective diffusivity; and the four-element diffusivity tensor calculated from an ensemble of passive tracers. These diagnostics reveal a consistent picture of isopycnal mixing by eddies, with a pronounced maximum near 1000m depth. The isopycnal diffusivity differs from the buoyancy diffusivity, a.k.a. the Gent–McWilliams transfer coefficient, which is weaker and peaks near the surface and bottom. The second set of methods are observationally “practical” diagnostics. They involve monitoring the spreading of tracers or Lagrangian particles in ways that are plausible in the field. We show how, with sufficient ensemble size, the practical diagnostics agree with the perfect diagnostics in an average sense. Some implications for eddy parameterization are discussed.},
	urldate = {2019-09-08},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Abernathey, Ryan and Ferreira, David and Klocker, Andreas},
	month = dec,
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {Antarctic Circumpolar Current, Eddy diffusivity, Isopycnal mixing, Mesoscale eddies},
	pages = {1--16}
}

@book{salmon_lectures_1998,
	title = {Lectures on {Geophysical} {Fluid} {Dynamics}},
	isbn = {978-0-19-535532-1},
	abstract = {Lectures on Geophysical Fluid Dynamics offers an introduction to several topics in geophysical fluid dynamics, including the theory of large-scale ocean circulation, geostrophic turbulence, and Hamiltonian fluid dynamics. Since each chapter is a self-contained introduction to its particular topic, the book will be useful to students and researchers in diverse scientific fields.},
	language = {en},
	publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Salmon, Rick},
	month = feb,
	year = {1998},
	note = {Google-Books-ID: r0Afu2k1bmQC},
	keywords = {Science / Earth Sciences / Geology, Science / Earth Sciences / Hydrology, Science / Earth Sciences / Meteorology \& Climatology, Science / Earth Sciences / Oceanography}
}

@article{mcdougall_abyssal_2016,
	title = {Abyssal {Upwelling} and {Downwelling} {Driven} by {Near}-{Boundary} {Mixing}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0082.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0082.1},
	abstract = {A buoyancy and volume budget analysis of bottom-intensified mixing in the abyssal ocean reveals simple expressions for the strong upwelling in very thin continental boundary layers and the interior near-boundary downwelling in the stratified ocean interior. For a given amount of Antarctic Bottom Water that is upwelled through neutral density surfaces in the abyssal ocean (between 2000 and 5000 m), up to 5 times this volume flux is upwelled in narrow, turbulent, sloping bottom boundary layers, while up to 4 times the net upward volume transport of Bottom Water flows downward across isopycnals in the near-boundary stratified ocean interior. These ratios are a direct result of a buoyancy budget with respect to buoyancy surfaces, and these ratios are calculated from knowledge of the stratification in the abyss along with the assumed e-folding height that characterizes the decrease of the magnitude of the turbulent diapycnal buoyancy flux away from the seafloor. These strong diapycnal upward and downward volume transports are confined to a few hundred kilometers of the continental boundaries, with no appreciable diapycnal motion in the bulk of the interior ocean.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-08-12},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {McDougall, Trevor J. and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	month = nov,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {261--283}
}

@article{greatbatch_parameterizing_1990,
	title = {On {Parameterizing} {Vertical} {Mixing} of {Momentum} in {Non}-eddy {Resolving} {Ocean} {Models}},
	volume = {20},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281990%29020%3C1634%3AOPVMOM%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1990)020<1634:OPVMOM>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {We investigate the consequence, at small Ekman number, of adding vertical mixing of momentum terms to the incompressible thermocline equations. We find that choosing the vertical eddy viscosity, ν = Af2/N2, where f is the Coriolis parameter and N is the local value of the buoyancy frequency, leads to isopycnal mixing of fQ, where Q is the reciprocal of potential vorticity, provided A is independent of the vertical coordinate. If, additionally, A is also independent of the north–south coordinate, then on a beta-plane, this implies homogenization of potential vorticity, q, within closed q-contours on isopycnal surfaces. This conclusion extends to spherical geometry if ν is also inversely proportional to β, the gradient of f with respect to latitude, i.e. ν = Af2/(N2β). The connection with the recent work of Gent and McWilliams and the consequences for coarse resolution numerical model studies are discussed.},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2019-08-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Greatbatch, Richard J. and Lamb, Kevin G.},
	month = oct,
	year = {1990},
	pages = {1634--1637}
}

@article{Thomas2015,
	title = {A lagrangian method to isolate the impacts of mixed layer subduction on the meridional overturning circulation in a numerical model},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {08948755},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00631.1},
	abstract = {AbstractLarge differences in the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) exhibited between the available ocean models pose problems as to how they can be interpreted for climate policy. A novel Lagrangian methodology has been developed for use with ocean models that enables a decomposition of the AMOC according to its source waters of subduction from the mixed layer of different geographical regions. The method is described here and used to decompose the AMOC of the Centre National de Recherches Météorologiques (CNRM) ocean model, which is approximately 4.5 Sv (1 Sv = 106 m3 s−1) too weak at 26°N, compared to observations. Contributions from mixed layer subduction to the peak AMOC at 26°N in the model are dominated by the Labrador Sea, which contributes 7.51 Sv; but contributions from the Nordic seas, the Irminger Sea, and the Rockall basin are also important. These waters mostly originate where deep mixed layers border the topographic slopes of the Subpolar Gyre and Nordic seas. The too-weak m...},
	number = {19},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Thomas, Matthew D. and Tr??guier, Anne Marie and Blanke, Bruno and Deshayes, Julie and Voldoire, Aurore},
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {Atm/Ocean Structure/Phenomena, Circulation/Dynamics, Convection, General circulation models, Lagrangian circulation/transport, Meridional overturning circulation, Models and modeling, Oceanic mixed layer},
	pages = {7503--7517}
}

@article{stouffer_assessing_2017,
	title = {Assessing temperature pattern projections made in 1989},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {1758-678X, 1758-6798},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate3224},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate3224},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Stouffer, Ronald J. and Manabe, Syukuro},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {163--165}
}

@article{talley_changes_2016,
	title = {Changes in {Ocean} {Heat}, {Carbon} {Content}, and {Ventilation}: {A} {Review} of the {First} {Decade} of {GO}-{SHIP} {Global} {Repeat} {Hydrography}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1941-1405},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-marine-052915-100829},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-marine-052915-100829},
	abstract = {Global ship-based programs, with highly accurate, full water column physical and biogeochemical observations repeated decadally since the 1970s, provide a crucial resource for documenting ocean change. The ocean, a central component of Earth's climate system, is taking up most of Earth's excess anthropogenic heat, with about 19\% of this excess in the abyssal ocean beneath 2,000 m, dominated by Southern Ocean warming. The ocean also has taken up about 27\% of anthropogenic carbon, resulting in acidification of the upper ocean. Increased stratification has resulted in a decline in oxygen and increase in nutrients in the Northern Hemisphere thermocline and an expansion of tropical oxygen minimum zones. Southern Hemisphere thermocline oxygen increased in the 2000s owing to stronger wind forcing and ventilation. The most recent decade of global hydrography has mapped dissolved organic carbon, a large, bioactive reservoir, for the first time and quantified its contribution to export production (∼20\%) and deep-ocean oxygen utilization. Ship-based measurements also show that vertical diffusivity increases from a minimum in the thermocline to a maximum within the bottom 1,500 m, shifting our physical paradigm of the ocean's overturning circulation. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Marine Science Volume 8 is January 03, 2016. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Annual Review of Marine Science},
	author = {Talley, L.D. and Feely, R.A. and Sloyan, B.M. and Wanninkhof, R. and Baringer, M.O. and Bullister, J.L. and Carlson, C.A. and Doney, S.C. and Fine, R.A. and Firing, E. and Gruber, N. and Hansell, D.A. and Ishii, M. and Johnson, G.C. and Katsumata, K. and Key, R.M. and Kramp, M. and Langdon, C. and Macdonald, A.M. and Mathis, J.T. and McDonagh, E.L. and Mecking, S. and Millero, F.J. and Mordy, C.W. and Nakano, T. and Sabine, C.L. and Smethie, W.M. and Swift, J.H. and Tanhua, T. and Thurnherr, A.M. and Warner, M.J. and Zhang, J.-Z.},
	year = {2016},
	pmid = {26515811},
	note = {ISBN: 1941-1405{\textbackslash}r978-0-8243-4508-2},
	keywords = {anthropogenic climate change, ocean temperature change, salinity change},
	pages = {annurev--marine--052915--100829}
}

@article{talley_closure_2013,
	title = {Closure of the {Global} {Overturning} {Circulation} {Through} the {Indian}, {Pacific}, and {Southern} {Oceans}: {Schematics} and {Transports}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1042-8275},
	url = {http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=UA&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=14&SID=W1jPgx8kkS6brME6NvD&page=1&doc=1},
	doi = {10.5670/oceanog.2013.07},
	abstract = {The overturning pathways for the surface-ventilated North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) and Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) and the diffusively formed Indian Deep Water (IDW) and Pacific Deep Water (PDW) are intertwined. The global overturning circulation (GOC) includes both large wind-driven upwelling in the Southern Ocean and important internal diapycnal transformation in the deep Indian and Pacific Oceans. All three northern-source Deep Waters (NADW, IDW, PDW) move southward and upwell in the Southern Ocean. AABW is produced from the denser, salty NADW and a portion of the lighter, low oxygen IDW/PDW that upwells above and north of NADW. The remaining upwelled IDW/PDW stays near the surface, moving into the subtropical thermoclines, and ultimately sources about one-third of the NADW. Another third of the NADW comes from AABW upwelling in the Atlantic. The remaining third comes from AABW upwelling to the thermocline in the Indian-Pacific. Atlantic cooling associated with NADW formation (0.3 PW north of 32 degrees S; 1 PW = 1015 W) and Southern Ocean cooling associated with AABW formation (0.4 PW south of 32 degrees S) are balanced mostly by 0.6 PW of deep diffusive heating in the Indian and Pacific Oceans; only 0.1 PW is gained at the surface in the Southern Ocean. Thus, while an adiabatic model of NADW global overturning driven by winds in the Southern Ocean, with buoyancy added only at the surface in the Southern Ocean, is a useful dynamical idealization, the associated heat changes require full participation of the diffusive Indian and Pacific Oceans, with a basin-averaged diffusivity on the order of the Munk value of 10(-4) m(2) s(-1).},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Oceanography},
	author = {Talley, Lynne D.},
	year = {2013},
	pmid = {25246403},
	note = {arXiv: 1011.1669v3
ISBN: 1042-8275},
	keywords = {DEEP, DRAKE PASSAGE, FLOW PATTERNS, HEAT, THERMOCLINE, THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION, THROUGHFLOW, TOTAL GEOSTROPHIC CIRCULATION, TRACERS, WATER},
	pages = {80--97}
}

@article{Tarasov1997,
	title = {Terminating the 100 kyr ice age cycle},
	volume = {102},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/97JD01766},
	doi = {10.1029/97JD01766},
	number = {D18},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Tarasov, Lev and Peltier, W. Richard},
	month = sep,
	year = {1997},
	pages = {21665--21693}
}

@article{thompson_atmospheric_2008,
	title = {The atmospheric ocean: eddies and jets in the {Antarctic} {Circumpolar} {Current}.},
	volume = {366},
	issn = {1364-503X},
	doi = {10.1098/rsta.2008.0196},
	abstract = {Although the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is the longest and the strongest oceanic current on the Earth and is the primary means of inter-basin exchange, it remains one of the most poorly represented components of global climate models. Accurately describing the circulation of the ACC is made difficult owing to the prominent role that mesoscale eddies and jets, oceanic equivalents of atmospheric storms and storm tracks, have in setting the density structure and transport properties of the current. The successes and limitations of different representations of eddy processes in models of the ACC are considered, with particular attention given to how the circulation responds to changes in wind forcing. The dynamics of energetic eddies and topographically steered jets may both temper and enhance the sensitivity of different aspects of the ACC's circulation to changes in climate.},
	number = {September},
	journal = {Philosophical transactions. Series A, Mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences},
	author = {Thompson, Andrew F},
	year = {2008},
	pmid = {18818151},
	note = {ISBN: 1364-503X (Print){\textbackslash}n1364-503X (Linking)},
	keywords = {antarctic circumpolar current, mesoscale eddies, zonal jets},
	pages = {4529--4541}
}

@article{thompson_equilibration_2014,
	title = {Equilibration of the {Antarctic} {Circumpolar} {Current} by {Standing} {Meanders}},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-13-0163.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-13-0163.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThe insensitivity of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)’s prominent isopycnal slope to changes in wind stress is thought to stem from the action of mesoscale eddies that counterbalance the wind-driven Ekman overturning—a framework verified in zonally symmetric circumpolar flows. Substantial zonal variations in eddy characteristics suggest that local dynamics may modify this balance along the path of the ACC. Analysis of an eddy-resolving ocean GCM shows that the ACC can be broken into broad regions of weak eddy activity, where surface winds steepen isopycnals, and a small number of standing meanders, across which the isopycnals relax. Meanders are coincident with sites of (i) strong eddy-induced modification of the mean flow and its vertical structure as measured by the divergence of the Eliassen–Palm flux and (ii) enhancement of deep eddy kinetic energy by up to two orders of magnitude over surrounding regions. Within meanders, the vorticity budget shows a balance between the advection of re...},
	number = {7},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Thompson, Andrew F. and Naveira Garabato, Alberto C.},
	year = {2014},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	keywords = {Circulation/ Dynamics, Fluxes, Geographic location/entity, Mesoscale processes, Physical Meteorology and Climatology, Southern Ocean, Stationary waves, Topographic effects, Vorticity},
	pages = {1811--1828}
}

@article{thompson_multibasin_2016,
	title = {A {Multibasin} {Residual}-{Mean} {Model} for the {Global} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-15-0204.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-15-0204.1},
	abstract = {The ocean’s overturning circulation is inherently three-dimensional, yet modern quantitative estimates of the overturning typically represent the subsurface circulation as a two-dimensional, two-cell streamfunction that varies with latitude and depth only. This approach suppresses information about zonal mass and tracer transport. In this article, the authors extend earlier, zonally averaged overturning theory to explore the dynamics of a ‘‘figure-eight’’ circulation that cycles through multiple basins. A three-dimensional residual-mean model of the overturning circulation is derived and then simplified to a multibasin isopycnal box model to explore how stratification and diabatic water mass transformations in each basin depend on the basin widths and on deep and bottom-water formation in both hemispheres. The idealization to multiple, two-dimensional basins permits zonal mass transport along isopycnals in a Southern Ocean–like channel, while retaining the dynamical framework of residual-mean theory. The model qualitatively reproduces the deeper isopycnal surfaces in the Pacific Basin relative to the Atlantic. This supports a transfer of Antarctic Bottom Water from the Atlantic sector to the Pacific sector via the Southern Ocean, which subsequently upwells in the northern Pacific Basin. A solution for the full isopycnal structure in the Southern Ocean reproduces observed stratification differences between Atlantic and Pacific Basins and provides a scaling for the diffusive boundary layer in which the zonal mass transport occurs. These results are consistent with observational indications that North Atlantic Deep Water is preferentially transformed into Antarctic Bottom Water, which undermines the importance of an adiabatic, upper overturning cell in the modern ocean.},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Thompson, Andrew F. and Stewart, Andrew L. and Bischoff, Tobias},
	month = sep,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {2583--2604}
}

@article{thompson_abyssal_1996,
	title = {Abyssal currents generated by diffusion and geothermal heating over rises},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {0967-0637},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0967063796000957?via%3Dihub},
	doi = {10.1016/0967-0637(96)00095-7},
	abstract = {A continuously stratified (in both salinity and temperature) diffusive time-dependent one-dimensional f-plane model over a sloping bottom is constructed. The model is used to investigate the role of mixing of density near the bottom on large-scale abyssal flow near mid-ocean rises. For realistic abyssal values, both geothermal heating from the bottom and diffusion can be important to the dynamics of flow over mid-ocean rises. When diffusion dominates, buoyancy is transported toward the bottom and the θ-S (potential temperature-salinity) relation remains nearly linear. When geothermal heating dominates, the θ-S relation hooks near the bottom and a convectively driven mixed layer forms. Both effects reduce the density and stratification near the bottom. In contrast, bottom-intensified diffusion has the same effect near the bottom but results in an increase of density and stratification some distance above the bottom. If the bottom slopes, a horizontal density gradient results, setting up a geostrophic, bottom-intensified, along-slope flow that can effect mass transport. Evidence of the importance of these processes is found in the abyssal Pacific. Just over the western flank of the East Pacific Rise, a 700–900 m thick layer of low N2 (buoyancy frequency) is warmer, saltier, and lighter than interior water at the same depth. This layer is described with CTD data from recent hydrographic sections at nominal latitudes 15°S and 10°N. If the interior is motionless, this low N2 layer transports 4 and 8 × 106 m3 s−1 equatorward above the western flank of the rise at 15°S and 10°N, respectively. This equatorward current, a direct result of diffusion and heating over a sloping sea-floor, has a volume transport comparable to those of the deep western boundary current at these latitudes.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-09-07},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers},
	author = {Thompson, Luanne and Johnson, Gregory C.},
	month = feb,
	year = {1996},
	note = {Publisher: Pergamon},
	pages = {193--211}
}

@article{toggweiler_ocean_2008,
	title = {Ocean circulation in a warming climate},
	volume = {451},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature06590},
	doi = {10.1038/nature06590},
	abstract = {Climate models predict that the ocean's circulation will weaken in response to global warming, but the warming at the end of the last ice age suggests a different outcome.},
	number = {7176},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Toggweiler, J. Robbie and Russell, Joellen L.},
	year = {2008},
	pmid = {18202645},
	note = {ISBN: 0028-0836},
	pages = {286--288}
}

@article{toggweiler_oceans_1998,
	title = {On the {Ocean}’s {Large}-{Scale} {Circulation} near the {Limit} of {No} {Vertical} {Mixing}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1998)028%3C1832:OTOSLS%3E2.0.CO%5Cn2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1998)028<1832:OTOSLS>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract By convention, the ocean?s large-scale circulation is assumed to be a thermohaline overturning driven by the addition and extraction of buoyancy at the surface and vertical mixing in the interior. Previous work suggests that the overturning should die out as vertical mixing rates are reduced to zero. In this paper, a formal energy analysis is applied to a series of ocean general circulation models to evaluate changes in the large-scale circulation over a range of vertical mixing rates. Two different model configurations are used. One has an open zonal channel and an Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). The other configuration does not. The authors find that a vigorous large-scale circulation persists at the limit of no mixing in the model with a wind-driven ACC. A wind-powered overturning circulation linked to the ACC can exist without vertical mixing and without much energy input from surface buoyancy forces.},
	number = {9},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Toggweiler, J R and Samuels, B},
	year = {1998},
	pmid = {2148298},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	pages = {1832--1852}
}

@article{van_sebille_origin_2012,
	title = {Origin, dynamics and evolution of ocean garbage patches from observed surface drifters},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {1748-9326},
	url = {http://stacks.iop.org/1748-9326/7/i=4/a=044040?key=crossref.8575675042bdb07866c752a02bbc1668},
	doi = {10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/044040},
	abstract = {Much of the debris in the near-surface ocean collects in so-called garbage patches where, due to convergence of the surface flow, the debris is trapped for decades to millennia. Until now, studies modelling the pathways of surface marine debris have not included release from coasts or factored in the possibilities that release concentrations vary with region or that pathways may include seasonal cycles. Here, we use observational data from the Global Drifter Program in a particle-trajectory tracer approach that includes the seasonal cycle to study the fate of marine debris in the open ocean from coastal regions around the world on interannual to centennial timescales.We find that six major garbage patches emerge, one in each of the five subtropical basins and one previously unreported patch in the Barents Sea. The evolution of each of the six patches is markedly different.With the exception of the North Pacific, all patches are much more dispersive than expected from linear ocean circulation theory, suggesting that on centennial timescales the different basins are much better connected than previously thought and that inter-ocean exchanges play a large role in the spreading of marine debris. This study suggests that, over multi-millennial timescales, a significant amount of the debris released outside of the North Atlantic will eventually end up in the North Pacific patch, the main attractor of global marine debris. Keywords:},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Environmental Research Letters},
	author = {van Sebille, Erik and England, Matthew H and Froyland, Gary},
	year = {2012},
	note = {ISBN: 1748-9326},
	keywords = {ekman dynamics, marine debris, ocean surface circulation, surface drifting buoys},
	pages = {1--6}
}

@article{vallis_geophysical_2016,
	title = {Geophysical fluid dynamics: whence, whither and why?},
	volume = {472},
	issn = {1364-5021},
	url = {http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/472/2192/20160140?etoc},
	doi = {10.1098/rspa.2016.0140},
	abstract = {This article discusses the role of geophysical fluid dynamics (GFD) in understanding the natural environment, and in particular the dynamics of atmospheres and oceans on Earth and elsewhere. GFD, as usually understood, is a branch of the geosciences that deals with fluid dynamics and that, by tradition, seeks to extract the bare essence of a phenomenon, omitting detail where possible. The geosciences in general deal with complex interacting systems and in some ways resemble condensed matter physics or aspects of biology, where we seek explanations of phenomena at a higher level than simply directly calculating the interactions of all the constituent parts. That is, we try to develop theories or make simple models of the behaviour of the system as a whole. However, these days in many geophysical systems of interest, we can also obtain information for how the system behaves by almost direct numerical simulation from the governing equations. The numerical model itself then explicitly predicts the emergent phenomena--the Gulf Stream, for example--something that is still usually impossible in biology or condensed matter physics. Such simulations, as manifested, for example, in complicated general circulation models, have in some ways been extremely successful and one may reasonably now ask whether understanding a complex geophysical system is necessary for predicting it. In what follows we discuss such issues and the roles that GFD has played in the past and will play in the future.},
	number = {2192},
	journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Science},
	author = {Vallis, Geoffrey K.},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {astrophysics, meteorology, oceanography},
	pages = {20160140}
}

@article{Tziperman2006,
	title = {Consequences of pacing the {Pleistocene} 100 kyr ice ages by nonlinear phase locking to {Milankovitch} forcing},
	volume = {21},
	issn = {08838305},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2005PA001241},
	doi = {10.1029/2005PA001241},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Paleoceanography},
	author = {Tziperman, Eli and Raymo, Maureen E. and Huybers, Peter and Wunsch, Carl},
	month = dec,
	year = {2006},
	keywords = {Milankovitch, glacial cycles, phase locking}
}

@article{VanSebille2013,
	title = {Abyssal connections of {Antarctic} {Bottom} {Water} in a {Southern} {Ocean} {State} {Estimate}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {00948276},
	doi = {10.1002/grl.50483},
	abstract = {Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) is formed in a few locations around the Antarctic continent, each source with distinct temperature and salinity. After formation, the different AABW varieties cross the Southern Ocean and flow into the subtropical abyssal basins. It is shown here, using the analysis of Lagrangian trajectories within the Southern Ocean State Estimate (SOSE) model, that the pathways of the different sources of AABW have to a large extent amalgamated into one pathway by the time it reaches 31°S in the deep subtropical basins. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current appears to play an important role in the amalgamation, as 70\% of the AABW completes at least one circumpolar loop before reaching the subtropical basins. This amalgamation of AABW pathways suggests that on decadal to centennial time scales, changes to properties and formation rates in any of the AABW source regions will be conveyed to all three subtropical abyssal basins.},
	number = {10},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Van Sebille, Erik and Spence, Paul and Mazloff, Matthew R. and England, Matthew H. and Rintoul, Stephen R. and Saenko, Oleg A.},
	year = {2013},
	note = {ISBN: 1944-8007},
	keywords = {Antarctic Bottom Water, Deep ocean circulation, Lagrangian trajectories, Southern Ocean},
	pages = {2177--2182}
}

@article{VanSebille2012,
	title = {Does the vorticity flux from {Agulhas} rings control the zonal pathway of {NADW} across the {South} {Atlantic}?},
	volume = {117},
	issn = {21699291},
	doi = {10.1029/2011JC007684},
	abstract = {As part of the global thermohaline circulation, some North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) exits the Atlantic basin to the south of Africa. Observations have shown that there is a quasi-zonal pathway centered at 25°S carrying NADW eastward, connecting the Deep Western Boundary Current to the Cape Basin. However, it has been unclear what sets this pathway. In particular, waters must move southward through the Cape Basin, thereby crossing isolines of planetary vorticity, in order to exit the basin. Here, we find that an eddy thickness flux induced by Agulhas rings moving northwestward forces a circulation of NADW through the Cape Basin. The pathway at 25°S feeds the southeastward flow of this circulation while conserving potential vorticity. Using Lagrangian floats advected for 300 years in a 1/10° resolution ocean model, we show that the most common pathway for NADW in our model lies directly below the Agulhas ring corridor. By analyzing the velocity and density fields in the model, we find that the decay of these rings, and their forward tilt with depth, results in a southward velocity, across isolines of planetary vorticity, of 1 to 2 cm/s in the deep waters. The associated stream function pattern yields a deep circulation transporting 4 Sv of NADW from the Deep Western Boundary Current at 25°S to the southern tip of Africa.},
	number = {5},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Van Sebille, Erik and Johns, William E. and Beal, Lisa M.},
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {Agulhas rings, North Atlantic Deep Water, vorticity dynamics, water mass pathways},
	pages = {1--12}
}

@article{VanSebille2018,
	title = {Lagrangian ocean analysis: {Fundamentals} and practices},
	volume = {121},
	issn = {14635003},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1463500317301853},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2017.11.008},
	abstract = {Lagrangian analysis is a powerful way to analyse the output of ocean circulation models and other ocean velocity data such as from altimetry. In the Lagrangian approach, large sets of virtual particles are integrated within the three-dimensional, time-evolving velocity fields. Over several decades, a variety of tools and methods for this purpose have emerged. Here, we review the state of the art in the field of Lagrangian analysis of ocean velocity data, starting from a fundamental kinematic framework and with a focus on large-scale open ocean applications. Beyond the use of explicit velocity fields, we consider the influence of unresolved physics and dynamics on particle trajectories. We comprehensively list and discuss the tools currently available for tracking virtual particles. We then showcase some of the innovative applications of trajectory data, and conclude with some open questions and an outlook. The overall goal of this review paper is to reconcile some of the different techniques and methods in Lagrangian ocean analysis, while recognising the rich diversity of codes that have and continue to emerge, and the challenges of the coming age of petascale computing.},
	urldate = {2017-12-21},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {van Sebille, Erik and Griffies, Stephen M. and Abernathey, Ryan and Adams, Thomas P. and Berloff, Pavel and Biastoch, Arne and Blanke, Bruno and Chassignet, Eric P. and Cheng, Yu and Cotter, Colin J. and Deleersnijder, Eric and Döös, Kristofer and Drake, Henri F. and Drijfhout, Sybren and Gary, Stefan F. and Heemink, Arnold W. and Kjellsson, Joakim and Koszalka, Inga Monika and Lange, Michael and Lique, Camille and MacGilchrist, Graeme A. and Marsh, Robert and Mayorga Adame, C. Gabriela and McAdam, Ronan and Nencioli, Francesco and Paris, Claire B. and Piggott, Matthew D. and Polton, Jeff A. and Rühs, Siren and Shah, Syed H.A.M. and Thomas, Matthew D. and Wang, Jinbo and Wolfram, Phillip J. and Zanna, Laure and Zika, Jan D.},
	year = {2018},
	pages = {49--75}
}

@article{washington_greenhouse_1993,
	title = {Greenhouse sensitivity experiments with penetrative cumulus convection and tropical cirrus albedo effects},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1432-0894},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00198616},
	doi = {10.1007/BF00198616},
	abstract = {Results are presented from two versions of a global R15 atmospheric general circulation model (GCM) coupled to a nondynamic, 50-m deep, slab ocean. Both versions include a penetrative convection scheme that has the effect of pumping more moisture higher into the troposphere. One also includes a simple prescribed functional dependence of cloud albedo in areas of high sea-surface temperature (SST) and deep convection. Previous analysis of observations has shown that in regions of high SST and deep convection, the upper-level cloud albedos increase as a result of the greater optical depth associated with increased moisture content. Based on these observations, we prescribe increased middle- and upper-level cloud albedos in regions of SST greater than 303 K where deep convection occurs. This crudely accounts for a type of cloud optical property feedback, but is well short of a computed cloud-optical property scheme. Since great uncertainty accompanies the formulation and tuning of such schemes, the prescribed albedo feedback is an intermediate step to examine basic feedbacks and sensitivities. We compare the two model versions (with earlier results from the same model with convective adjustment) to a model from the Canadian Climate Centre (CCC) having convective adjustment and a computed cloud optical properties feedback scheme and to several other GCMs. The addition of penetrative convection increases tropospheric moisture, cloud amount, and planetary albedo and decreases net solar input at the surface. However, the competing effect of increased downward infrared flux (from increased tropospheric moisture) causes a warmer surface and increased latent heat flux. Adding the prescribed cirrus albedo feedback decreases net solar input at the surface in the tropics, since the cloud albedos increase in regions of high SST and deep convection. Downward infrared radiation (from increased moisture) also increases, but this effect is overpowered by the reduced solar input in the tropics. Therefore, the surface is somewhat cooler in the tropics, latent heat flux decreases, and global average sensitivity to a doubling of CO2 with regard to temperature and precipitation/evaporation feedback is reduced. Similar processes, evident in the CCC model with convective adjustment and a computed cloud optical properties feedback scheme, occur over a somewhat expanded latitudinal range. The addition of penetrative convection produces global effects, as does the prescribed cirrus albedo feedback, although the strongest local effects of the latter occur in the tropics.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Washington, Warren M. and Meehl, Gerald A.},
	month = may,
	year = {1993},
	keywords = {Atmospheric General Circulation Model, Cloud Amount, Cumulus Convection, Deep Convection, Latent Heat Flux},
	pages = {211--223}
}

@article{Waterhouse2014,
	title = {Global {Patterns} of {Diapycnal} {Mixing} from {Measurements} of the {Turbulent} {Dissipation} {Rate}},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-13-0104.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-13-0104.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThe authors present inferences of diapycnal diffusivity from a compilation of over 5200 microstructure profiles. As microstructure observations are sparse, these are supplemented with indirect measurements of mixing obtained from (i) Thorpe-scale overturns from moored profilers, a finescale parameterization applied to (ii) shipboard observations of upper-ocean shear, (iii) strain as measured by profiling floats, and (iv) shear and strain from full-depth lowered acoustic Doppler current profilers (LADCP) and CTD profiles. Vertical profiles of the turbulent dissipation rate are bottom enhanced over rough topography and abrupt, isolated ridges. The geography of depth-integrated dissipation rate shows spatial variability related to internal wave generation, suggesting one direct energy pathway to turbulence. The global-averaged diapycnal diffusivity below 1000-m depth is O(10−4) m2 s−1 and above 1000-m depth is O(10−5) m2 s−1. The compiled microstructure observations sample a wide range of internal wa...},
	number = {7},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Waterhouse, Amy F. and MacKinnon, Jennifer a. and Nash, Jonathan D. and Alford, Matthew H. and Kunze, Eric and Simmons, Harper L. and Polzin, Kurt L. and St. Laurent, Louis C. and Sun, Oliver M. and Pinkel, Robert and Talley, Lynne D. and Whalen, Caitlin B. and Huussen, Tycho N. and Carter, Glenn S. and Fer, Ilker and Waterman, Stephanie and Naveira Garabato, Alberto C. and Sanford, Thomas B. and Lee, Craig M.},
	year = {2014},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	keywords = {Circulation/ Dynamics, Diapycnal mixing, Internal waves},
	pages = {1854--1872}
}

@article{wunsch_oceanic_1970,
	title = {On oceanic boundary mixing},
	volume = {17},
	issn = {00117471},
	doi = {10.1016/0011-7471(70)90022-7},
	abstract = {The basic stratification and the sloping boundaries of the ocean induce a mean upwelling velocity at the walls in order to satisfy the no flux condition. In the oceanographically most interesting case, the effect is confined to a boundary of thickness 0((vk)1 2/N1 2 where v, k are the austausch coefficients for momentum and heat respectively, and N is the local Brunt-Väisälä frequency. The effect of strong rotation is to induce an accompanying thermal wind in the interior of the ocean. If boundary mixing processes are sufficiently strong, then this upwelling process might account for most of the vertical velocity needed in the abyssal circulation. This is in accord with earlier suggestions that the boundaries play the essential role in the vertical exchange of oceanic properties. © 1970.},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Deep-Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts},
	author = {Wunsch, Carl},
	year = {1970},
	pages = {293--301}
}

@article{waugh_recent_2013,
	title = {Recent changes in the ventilation of the southern oceans},
	volume = {339},
	issn = {1095-9203},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1225411},
	abstract = {Surface westerly winds in the Southern Hemisphere have intensified over the past few decades, primarily in response to the formation of the Antarctic ozone hole, and there is intense debate on the impact of this on the ocean's circulation and uptake and redistribution of atmospheric gases. We used measurements of chlorofluorocarbon-12 (CFC-12) made in the southern oceans in the early 1990s and mid- to late 2000s to examine changes in ocean ventilation. Our analysis of the CFC-12 data reveals a decrease in the age of subtropical subantarctic mode waters and an increase in the age of circumpolar deep waters, suggesting that the formation of the Antarctic ozone hole has caused large-scale coherent changes in the ventilation of the southern oceans.},
	number = {6119},
	journal = {Science (New York, N.Y.)},
	author = {Waugh, Darryn W and Primeau, Francois and Devries, Tim and Holzer, Mark},
	year = {2013},
	pmid = {23372011},
	note = {ISBN: 1095-9203},
	keywords = {Antarctic Regions, Chlorofluorocarbons, Chlorofluorocarbons: analysis, Oceans and Seas, Ozone Depletion, Seasons, Wind},
	pages = {568--70}
}

@article{wunsch_total_2005,
	title = {The total meridional heat flux and its oceanic and atmospheric partition},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {08948755},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI3539.1},
	abstract = {Atmospheric meridional heat transport is inferred as a residual from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) data and in situ oceanic estimates. Reversing the conventional approach of computing the ocean as an atmospheric model residual is done to permit calculation of a preliminary uncertainty estimate for the atmospheric flux. The structure of the ERBE errors is itself an important uncertainty. Total energy transport is almost indistinguishable from a hemispherically antisymmetric analytic function, despite the great asymmetry of the oceanic heat fluxes. ERBE data appear sufficiently noisy so that a considerable range of atmospheric transports remains possible: the maximum atmospheric value lies between 3 and 5 PW in the Northern Hemisphere, at one standard deviation, although the values are sensitive to the noise assumptions made here. The Northern Hemisphere ocean and atmosphere carry comparable poleward heat fluxes to about 28°N where the oceanic flux drops rapidly, but does not actually vanish until the oceanic surface area goes to zero. Within the estimated error bars, there is a remarkable antisymmetry about the equator of the combined ocean and atmospheric transports, despite the marked oceanic transport asymmetry.},
	number = {21},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Wunsch, Carl},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {4374--4380}
}

@article{wunsch_vertical_2004,
	title = {{VERTICAL} {MIXING}, {ENERGY}, {AND} {THE} {GENERAL} {CIRCULATION} {OF} {THE} {OCEANS}},
	volume = {36},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.122121},
	abstract = {The coexistence in the deep ocean of a finite, stable stratification, a strong meridional overturning circulation, and mesoscale eddies raises complex questions concerning the circulation energetics. In particular, small-scale mixing processes are necessary to resupply the potential energy removed in the interior by the overturning and eddy-generating process. A number of lines of evidence, none complete, suggest that the oceanic general circulation, far from being a heat engine, is almost wholly governed by the forcing of the wind field and secondarily by deep water tides. In detail however, the budget of mechanical energy input into the ocean is poorly constrained. The now inescapable conclusion that over most of the ocean significant “vertical” mixing is confined to topographically complex boundary areas implies a potentially radically different interior circulation than is possible with uniform mixing. Whether ocean circulation models, either simple box or full numerical ones, neither explictly...},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-09-20},
	journal = {Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Wunsch, Carl and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	month = jan,
	year = {2004},
	note = {Publisher: Annual Reviews},
	keywords = {ocean circulation, ocean circulation energy, ocean mixing},
	pages = {281--314}
}

@misc{noauthor_climate-model-performance_nodate,
	title = {climate-model-performance},
	url = {https://www.overleaf.com/project/5c6c896893fcbe29caa89788},
	abstract = {An online LaTeX editor that's easy to use. No installation, real-time collaboration, version control, hundreds of LaTeX templates, and more.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-02-28}
}

@misc{noauthor_summary_nodate,
	title = {Summary for {Policymakers} — {Global} {Warming} of 1.5 º{C}},
	url = {https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/summary-for-policy-makers/},
	urldate = {2019-04-02}
}

@misc{noauthor_zotero_nodate,
	title = {Zotero {\textbar} {Downloads}},
	url = {https://www.zotero.org/download/},
	urldate = {2019-02-28}
}

@article{stommel_examples_1958,
	title = {Some {Examples} of {Stationary} {Planetary} {Flow} {Patterns} in {Bounded} {Basins}},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {00402826, 21533490},
	url = {http://tellusa.net/index.php/tellusa/article/view/9238},
	doi = {10.1111/j.2153-3490.1958.tb02003.x},
	abstract = {A simple regime of fluid flow is defined. This regime can occur in a homogeneous layer of fluid (i) of uniform depth on a rotating sphere and bounded by meridional barriers (ii) of uniform depth on a betaplane and bounded by barriers running north-south (iii) of radially non-uniform depth on a rotating plane and bounded by radial barriers. The essential elements defining the regime are: (a) the flow in the whole layer is steady and geostrophic except and only (b) at the western boundary where a narrow, intense western boundary current is permitted to depart markedly from geostrophy, and (c) the system, which would otherwise be at rest, is drivenby a distribution of sources and sinks of fluid (this includes driving agents such as the wind, which can be expressed in terms of source and sink distributions).},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Tellus},
	author = {Stommel, Henry and Arons, A. B. and Faller, A. J.},
	year = {1958},
	pages = {179--187}
}

@article{callies_simple_2012,
	title = {A simple and self-consistent geostrophic-force-balance model of the thermohaline circulation with boundary mixing},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1812-0792},
	url = {https://www.ocean-sci.net/8/49/2012/},
	doi = {10.5194/os-8-49-2012},
	abstract = {{\textless}p{\textgreater}{\textless}p{\textgreater}{\textless}strong{\textgreater}Abstract.{\textless}/strong{\textgreater} A simple model of the thermohaline circulation (THC) is formulated, with the objective to represent explicitly the geostrophic force balance of the basinwide THC. The model comprises advective-diffusive density balances in two meridional-vertical planes located at the eastern and the western walls of a hemispheric sector basin. Boundary mixing constrains vertical motion to lateral boundary layers along these walls. Interior, along-boundary, and zonally integrated meridional flows are in thermal-wind balance. Rossby waves and the absence of interior mixing render isopycnals zonally flat except near the western boundary, constraining meridional flow to the western boundary layer. The model is forced by a prescribed meridional surface density profile. {\textless}br{\textgreater}{\textless}br{\textgreater} This two-plane model reproduces both steady-state density and steady-state THC structures of a primitive-equation model. The solution shows narrow deep sinking at the eastern high latitudes, distributed upwelling at both boundaries, and a western boundary current with poleward surface and equatorward deep flow. The overturning strength has a 2/3-power-law dependence on vertical diffusivity and a 1/3-power-law dependence on the imposed meridional surface density difference. Convective mixing plays an essential role in the two-plane model, ensuring that deep sinking is located at high latitudes. This role of convective mixing is consistent with that in three-dimensional models and marks a sharp contrast with previous two-dimensional models. {\textless}br{\textgreater}{\textless}br{\textgreater} Overall, the two-plane model reproduces crucial features of the THC as simulated in simple-geometry three-dimensional models. At the same time, the model self-consistently makes quantitative a conceptual picture of the three-dimensional THC that hitherto has been expressed either purely qualitatively or not self-consistently.{\textless}/p{\textgreater}{\textless}/p{\textgreater}},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-10-16},
	journal = {Ocean Science},
	author = {Callies, J. and Marotzke, J.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {49--63}
}

@article{cember_deep_1998,
	title = {On deep western boundary currents},
	volume = {103},
	copyright = {Copyright 1998 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/97JC02422},
	doi = {10.1029/97JC02422},
	abstract = {The Stommel and Arons [1960a, b] theory of the deep circulation of the world ocean does not directly address the physics of deep boundary currents. In the present paper a maximally simple steady state physics for deep western boundary currents is developed and integrated into the Stommel-Arons model. This is accomplished by modifying the assumptions of the latter to include effective horizontal eddy viscous terms everywhere in the deep water, including in the interior. The resulting solution for the meridional velocity in a rectangular ocean on a beta plane is mathematically analogous to that of Munk [1950] for the wind-driven circulation. In the interior the meridional velocity reduces identically to that of Stommel and Arons. Among other benefits, the solution eliminates the theoretical difficulties associated with the crossing of the equator by the deep western boundary current. As an initial test of the theory's consistency with observation, theoretical plots of pressure and meridional velocity as a function of longitude are qualitatively compared with hydrographic sections and inferred meridional velocity fields in the eastern and western basins of the abyssal North Atlantic. Also, the theoretical profile for the meridional velocity as a function of longitude is qualitatively compared with observations of longshore velocity as a function of offshore distance in the deep western boundary current of the North Atlantic Deep Water.},
	language = {en},
	number = {C3},
	urldate = {2019-07-18},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Cember, Richard P.},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {5397--5417}
}

@article{marotzke_boundary_1997,
	title = {Boundary {Mixing} and the {Dynamics} of {Three}-{Dimensional} {Thermohaline} {Circulations}},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/1520-0485%281997%29027%3C1713%3ABMATDO%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1997)027<1713:BMATDO>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Boundary mixing is implemented in an ocean general circulation model such that the vertical mixing coefficient kυ is nonzero only near side boundaries and in convection regions. The model is used in a highly idealized configuration with no wind forcing and very nearly fixed surface density to investigate the three-dimensional dynamics of the thermohaline circulation. For kυ = 20 × 10−4 m2 s−1 and lower, the meridional overturning strength to great accuracy is proportional to ; meridional heat transport is proportional to . The circulation patterns resemble those from runs with uniform vertical mixing, but vertical motion is entirely confined to the boundary regions. Near the western boundary, there is upwelling everywhere. Near the eastern boundary, there is a consistent pattern of downwelling above upwelling, with downwelling reaching deeper at high latitudes; this pattern is explained by convection and vertical advective–diffusive balance underneath. For kυ = 30 × 10−4 m2 s−1 and higher, no steady solutions have been found; the meridional overturning oscillates on a timescale of about 25 years. A time-averaged thermally direct overturning cell is not supported dynamically because convection extends longitudinally across the entire basin, and upwelling near the western boundary does not lead to densities higher than at the eastern boundary. Assuming uniform upwelling in the west, level isopycnals near the equator, and level isopycnals along the eastern boundary south of the outcropping latitude permits the analytic determination of convection depth at the eastern wall and hence the density difference between the eastern and western walls. This difference is at most one-quarter the surface density difference between high and low latitudes, and agrees in magnitude and latitudinal dependence with the numerical experiments. Scaling arguments estimate overturning strength as of the order of 10 × 106 m3 s−1 and confirm the 2/3 power dependence on kυ. The derivation also gives a dependence of overturning strength with latitude that agrees qualitatively with the numerical results. The scaling for the dependence of meridional heat transport on latitude agrees well with the model results; scaling for heat transport amplitude agrees less well but correctly predicts a weaker dependence on kυ than maximum overturning.},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-07-17},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Marotzke, Jochem},
	month = aug,
	year = {1997},
	pages = {1713--1728}
}

@article{hallberg_buoyancy-driven_1996,
	title = {Buoyancy-{Driven} {Circulation} in an {Ocean} {Basin} with {Isopycnals} {Intersecting} the {Sloping} {Boundary}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281996%29026%3C0913%3ABDCIAO%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1996)026<0913:BDCIAO>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The dynamics that govern the spreading of a convectively formed water mass in an ocean with sloping boundaries are examined using an isopycnal model that permits the interface between the layers to intersect the sloping boundaries. The simulations presented here use a two-layer configuration to demonstrate some of the pronounced differences in a baroclinically forced flow between the response in a basin with a flat bottom and vertical walls and a more realistic basin bounded by a sloping bottom. Each layer has a directly forced signal that propagates away from the forcing along the potential vorticity (PV) contours of that layer. Paired, opposed boundary currents are generated by refracted topographic Rossby waves, rather than Kelvin waves. It is impossible to decompose the flow into globally independent baroclinic and barotropic modes; topography causes the barotropic (i.e., depth averaged) response to buoyancy forcing to be just as strong as the baroclinic response. Because layer PV contours diverge, boundary currents are pulled apart at different depths even in weakly forced, essentially linear, cases. Such barotropic modes, often described as “caused by the JEBAR effect,” are actually dominated by strong free flow along PV contours. With both planetary vorticity gradients and topography, the two layers are linearly coupled. This coupling is evident in upper-layer circulations that follow upper-layer PV contours but originate in unforced regions of strong lower-layer flow. The interior ocean response is confined primarily to PV contours that are either directly forced or strongly coupled at some point to directly forced PV contours of the other layer. Even when the forcing is strong enough to generate a rich eddy field in the upper layer, the topographic PV gradients in the lower layer stabilize that layer and inhibit exchange of fluid across PV contours. The dynamic processes explored in this study are pertinent to both nonlinear flows (strongly forced) and linear flows (weakly forced and forerunners of strongly forced). Both small (f plane) and large (full spherical variation of the Coriolis parameter) basins are included. Transequatorial basins, in which the geostrophic contours are blocked, are not described here.},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-07-17},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Hallberg, Robert and Rhines, Peter},
	month = jun,
	year = {1996},
	pages = {913--940}
}

@inproceedings{rhines_oceanic_1993,
	address = {Berlin, Heidelberg},
	title = {Oceanic {General} {Circulation}: {Wave} and {Advection} {Dynamics}},
	isbn = {978-3-642-84975-6},
	abstract = {This is a discussion of the oceanic general circulation, both wind-driven and buoyancy driven. We start with basic ideas about fluids `stiffened' by planetary rotation and Sverdrup-Rossby dynamics, describe the `non-Doppler' effect that allows one to solve a large class of wind-driven circulations, and `arrested wave' theory that leads to many linear models of water-mass development and circulation. This borders on Rossby hydraulics' in which advection and wave propagation effects are fully competitive. Modern debate over potential vorticity dynamics and `warm' and `cold' subduction layers into the thermocline are discussed. The production of vertical stratification that is the essence of subduction can occur from warming-induced restratification in spring or from cooling and dynamical restratification (conversion of horizontal-density gradient into vertical-density gradient). Wind-driven circulation involves active potential vorticity advection and stirring, and the ratio of advection to mesoscale-eddy diffusion in the gyres (the Peclet number) is of order 3 to 5, which is not large. In addition to the global overturning modes seen in global circulation models, the deep circulation involves smaller, faster, and more quickly responding branches of circulation which occur with topographic basins and ridges, and with fast boundary-current physics. These may be eddy forced, and shaped by topography. The capacity of basin topography to reverse the Stommel-Arons circulation (by its `hypsometry') is described. Some of the `missing physics' that challenges numerical ocean models is discussed, and some promotion of the value of laboratory experiments given.},
	booktitle = {Modelling {Oceanic} {Climate} {Interactions}},
	publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg},
	author = {Rhines, Peter B.},
	editor = {Willebrand, Jürgen and Anderson, David L. T.},
	year = {1993},
	pages = {67--149}
}

@article{st._laurent_role_2002,
	title = {The {Role} of {Internal} {Tides} in {Mixing} the {Deep} {Ocean}},
	volume = {32},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282002%29032%3C2882%3ATROITI%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032<2882:TROITI>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract Internal wave theory is used to examine the generation, radiation, and energy dissipation of internal tides in the deep ocean. Estimates of vertical energy flux based on a previously developed model are adjusted to account for the influence of finite depth, varying stratification, and two-dimensional topography. Specific estimates of energy flux are made for midocean ridge topography. Weakly nonlinear theory is applied to the wave generation at idealized topography to examine finite amplitude corrections to the linear theory. Most internal tide energy is generated at low modes associated with spatial scales from roughly 20 to 100 km. The Richardson number of the radiated internal tide typically exceeds unity for these motions, and so direct shear instability of the generated waves is not the dominant energy transfer mechanism. It also seems that wave–wave interactions are ineffective at transferring energy from the large wavelengths that dominate the energy flux. Instead, it appears that most of ...},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2018-10-17},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {St. Laurent, Louis and Garrett, Chris},
	month = oct,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {2882--2899}
}

@article{St.Laurent2001,
	title = {Buoyancy {Forcing} by {Turbulence} above {Rough} {Topography} in the {Abyssal} {Brazil} {Basin}*},
	volume = {31},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2001)031<3476:BFBTAR>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract Observations of turbulent dissipation above rough bathymetry in the abyssal Brazil Basin are presented. Relative to regions with smooth bathymetry, dissipation is markedly enhanced above rough topography of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge with levels above bathymetric slopes exceeding levels observed over crests and canyon floors. Furthermore, mixing levels in rough areas are modulated by the spring–neap tidal cycle. Internal waves generated by barotropic tidal flow over topography are the likely mechanism for supplying the energy needed to support the observed turbulent dissipation. A model of the spatial and temporal patterns in the turbulent dissipation rate is used to constrain the diapycnal advection in an inverse calculation for the circulation in an area of rough bathymetry. This inverse model uses both beta-spiral and integrated forms of the advective budgets for heat, mass, and vorticity, and contains sufficient information to resolve the full three-dimensional flow. The inverse model solution re...},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2016-12-09},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {St. Laurent, Louis C. and Toole, John M. and Schmitt, Raymond W.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2001},
	pages = {3476--3495}
}

@article{springmann_analysis_2016,
	title = {Analysis and valuation of the health and climate change cobenefits of dietary change},
	volume = {113},
	issn = {0027-8424},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1523119113},
	abstract = {What we eat greatly influences our personal health and the environ-ment we all share. Recent analyses have highlighted the likely dual health and environmental benefits of reducing the fraction of animal-sourced foods in our diets. Here, we couple for the first time, to our knowledge, a region-specific global health model based on dietary and weight-related risk factors with emissions accounting and economic valuation modules to quantify the linked health and environmental consequences of dietary changes. We find that the impacts of dietary changes toward less meat and more plant-based diets vary greatly among regions. The largest absolute environmental and health benefits result from diet shifts in developing countries whereas Western high-income and middle-income countries gain most in per capita terms. Transitioning toward more plant-based diets that are in line with standard dietary guidelines could reduce global mortality by 6–10\% and food-related greenhouse gas emissions by 29–70\% com-pared with a reference scenario in 2050. We find that the monetized value of the improvements in health would be comparable with, or exceed, the value of the environmental benefits although the exact valuation method used considerably affects the estimated amounts. Overall, we estimate the economic benefits of improving diets to be 1–31 trillion US dollars, which is equivalent to 0.4–13\% of global gross domestic product (GDP) in 2050. However, significant changes in the global food system would be necessary for regional diets to match the dietary patterns studied here. sustainable diets {\textbar} dietary change {\textbar} food system {\textbar} health analysis {\textbar} greenhouse gas emissions T he choices we make about the food we eat affect our health and have major ramifications for the state of the environment. The food system is responsible for more than a quarter of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (1), of which up to 80\% are associated with livestock production (2, 3). The aggregate dietary decisions we make thus have a large influence on climate change. High consumption of red and processed meat and low consump-tion of fruits and vegetables are important diet-related risk factors contributing to substantial early mortality in most regions while over a billion people are overweight or obese (4). Without targeted dietary changes, the situation is expected to worsen as a growing and more wealthy global population adopts diets resulting in more GHG emissions (5) and that increase the health burden from chronic, noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) associated with high body weight and unhealthy diets (6). Recent analyses have highlighted the environmental benefits of reducing the fraction of animal-sourced foods in our diets and have also suggested that such dietary changes could lead to improved health (7–14). They have shown that reductions in meat con-sumption and other dietary changes would ease pressure on land use (11, 12) and reduce GHG emissions (7, 11–14). Changing diets may be more effective than technological mitigation options for avoiding climate change (14) and may be essential to avoid nega-tive environmental impacts such as major agricultural expansion (7) and global warming of more than 2 °C (13) while ensuring access to safe and affordable food for an increasing global pop-ulation (8, 15). The diets investigated in these studies include diets with a pro rata reduction in animal products (ruminant meat, total meat, dairy) (11, 13, 14), specific dietary patterns that include reduced or no meat (such as Mediterranean, " pescatarian, " and vegetarian diets) (11, 12), and diets based on recommendations about healthy eating (7, 11). The health consequences of adopting these diets have not been explicitly modeled or quantitatively analyzed, but instead inferences have been drawn from information available in the epidemiological literature (16). In the most comprehensive study to date, Tilman and Clark (12) analyzed the GHG emissions of a series of diets that differed in their animal-sourced food con-tent and presented their results alongside a series of observational studies of the health consequences of adopting the different diets. Here, we use a region-specific global health model to link the health and environmental consequences of changing diets. We also make a first attempt, to our knowledge, to estimate the economic value of different dietary choices through their effects on health and the environment. For the health analysis, we built a compar-ative risk assessment model to estimate age and region-specific mortality associated with changes in dietary and weight-related risk factors (4, 17). The specific risk factors influence mortality through dose–response relationships, which allow us to compare different dietary scenarios based on their exposure to those risk factors. Given the availability of consistent epidemiological data, we fo-cused on changes in the consumption of red meat, and of fruits and vegetables, which together accounted for more than half of diet-related deaths in 2010 (4), and also on the fraction of people who are overweight or obese through excess calorie consumption, which too is associated strongly with chronic disease mortality (18, 19).},
	number = {15},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America},
	author = {Springmann, Marco and Godfray, H Charles J and Rayner, Mike and Scarborough, Peter},
	year = {2016},
	pmid = {27001851},
	note = {ISBN: 1476-4687},
	pages = {4146--4151}
}

@article{Spence2014,
	title = {Using {Eulerian} and {Lagrangian} {Approaches} to {Investigate} {Wind}-{Driven} {Changes} in the {Southern} {Ocean} {Abyssal} {Circulation}},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-13-0108.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-13-0108.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThis study uses a global ocean eddy-permitting climate model to explore the export of abyssal water from the Southern Ocean and its sensitivity to projected twenty-first-century poleward-intensifying Southern Ocean wind stress. The abyssal flow pathways and transport are investigated using a combination of Lagrangian and Eulerian techniques. In an Eulerian format, the equator- and poleward flows within similar abyssal density classes are increased by the wind stress changes, making it difficult to explicitly diagnose changes in the abyssal export in a meridional overturning circulation framework. Lagrangian particle analyses are used to identify the major export pathways of Southern Ocean abyssal waters and reveal an increase in the number of particles exported to the subtropics from source regions around Antarctica in response to the wind forcing. Both the Lagrangian particle and Eulerian analyses identify transients as playing a key role in the abyssal export of water from the Southern Ocean. Wi...},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Spence, Paul and van Sebille, Erik and Saenko, Oleg a and England, Matthew H.},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {662--675}
}

@article{Simmons2004,
	title = {Tidally driven mixing in a numerical model of the ocean general circulation},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {14635003},
	doi = {10.1016/S1463-5003(03)00011-8},
	abstract = {Astronomical data reveals that approximately 3.5 terawatts (TW) of tidal energy is dissipated in the ocean. Tidal models and satellite altimetry suggest that 1 TW of this energy is converted from the barotropic to internal tides in the deep ocean, predominantly around regions of rough topography such as mid-ocean ridges. A global tidal model is used to compute turbulent energy levels associated with the dissipation of internal tides, and the diapycnal mixing supported by this energy flux is computed using a simple parameterization.The mixing parameterization has been incorporated into a coarse resolution numerical model of the global ocean. This parameterization offers an energetically consistent and practical means of improving the representation of ocean mixing processes in climate models. Novel features of this implementation are that the model explicitly accounts for the tidal energy source for mixing, and that the mixing evolves both spatially and temporally with the model state. At equilibrium, the globally averaged diffusivity profile ranges from 0.3 cm2 s-1 at thermocline depths to 7.7 cm2 s-1 in the abyss with a depth average of 0.9 cm2 s-1, in close agreement with inferences from global balances. Water properties are strongly influenced by the combination of weak mixing in the main thermocline and enhanced mixing in the deep ocean. Climatological comparisons show that the parameterized mixing scheme results in a substantial reduction of temperature/salinity bias relative to model solutions with either a uniform vertical diffusivity of 0.9 cm2 s-1 or a horizontally uniform bottom-intensified arctangent mixing profile. This suggests that spatially varying bottom intensified mixing is an essential component of the balances required for the maintenance of the ocean's abyssal stratification. © 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.},
	number = {3-4},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Simmons, Harper L. and Jayne, Steven R. and St. Laurent, Louis C. and Weaver, Andrew J.},
	year = {2004},
	note = {ISBN: 1463-5003},
	pages = {245--263}
}

@article{samelson_large-scale_1998,
	title = {Large-{Scale} {Circulation} with {Locally} {Enhanced} {Vertical} {Mixing}*},
	volume = {28},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281998%29028%3C0712%3ALSCWLE%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1998)028<0712:LSCWLE>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract The influence of localized regions of intensified vertical mixing on the stratification and circulation in a large-scale ocean model is investigated with idealized numerical experiments. Numerical solutions are obtained of a closed-basin, single-hemisphere ocean model based on the planetary geostrophic equations. Mesoscale eddy effects are minimized, and vertical mixing at the turbulent microscale is represented by a vertical diffusivity κυ. Solutions with uniform κυ are contrasted with a “localized mixing” solution, in which κυ increases by two orders of magnitude from its interior value (0.2 × 10−4 m2 s−1) in a region 500 km wide adjacent to the vertical eastern boundary. When κυ is uniform, the stratification beneath the ventilated thermocline is characterized by a single vertical scale. In contrast, the localized vertical mixing supports a deep diffusive thermocline with two distinct vertical scales: an internal boundary layer centered at the base of the ventilated thermocline (roughly 1000-m...},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-10-16},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Samelson, R. M.},
	month = apr,
	year = {1998},
	pages = {712--726}
}

@article{sallee_southern_2010,
	title = {Southern {Ocean} {Thermocline} {Ventilation}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JPO4291.1},
	abstract = {An approximate mass (volume) budget in the surface layer of the Southern Ocean is used to investigate the intensity and regional variability of the ventilation process, discussed here in terms of subduction and up- welling. Ventilation resulting from Ekman pumping is estimated from satellite winds, the geostrophic mean component is assessed from a climatology strengthened with Argo data, and the eddy-induced advection is included via the parameterization of Gent and McWilliams, together with eddy mixing estimates. All three components contribute significantly to ventilation. Finally, the seasonal cycle of the upper ocean is resolved using Argo data. The circumpolar-averaged circulation shows an upwelling in the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) density classes, which is carried north into a zone of dense Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) subduction. Although no consistent net production is found in the light SAMW density classes, a large subduction of Subtropical Mode Water (STMW) is observed. The STMW area is fed by convergence of a southward and a northward residual meridional circulation. The eddy-induced contribution is important for the water mass transport in the vicinity of the Antartic Circumpolar Current. It balances the horizontal northward Ekman transport as well as the vertical Ekman pumping. While the circumpolar-averaged upper cell structure is consistent with the average surface fluxes, it hides strong longitudinal regional variations and does not represent any local regime. Subduction shows strong regional variability with bathymetrically constrained hotspots of large subduction. These hotspots are con- sistent with the interior potential vorticity structure and circulation in the thermocline. Pools of SAMWand AAIW of different densities are found along the circumpolar belt in association with the regional pattern of subduction and interior circulation.},
	number = {3},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Sallée, Jean-Baptiste and Speer, Kevin and Rintoul, Steve and Wijffels, S.},
	year = {2010},
	note = {ISBN: 1520-0485},
	pages = {509--529}
}

@article{sallee_mean-flow_nodate,
	title = {Mean-flow and topographic control on surface eddy-mixing in the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	urldate = {2016-07-28},
	author = {Sallée, J.B. and Speer, K. and Rintoul, S.R.},
	note = {Publisher: Sears Foundation for Marine Research}
}

@article{sallee_assessment_2013,
	title = {Assessment of {Southern} {Ocean} water mass circulation and characteristics in {CMIP5} models: {Historical} bias and forcing response},
	volume = {118},
	issn = {21699275},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jgrc.20135},
	doi = {10.1002/jgrc.20135},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2017-08-01},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Sallée, J.-B. and Shuckburgh, E. and Bruneau, N. and Meijers, A. J. S. and Bracegirdle, T. J. and Wang, Z. and Roy, T.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {CMIP5, Southern Ocean, overturning, water mass},
	pages = {1830--1844}
}

@article{sallee_estimate_2008,
	title = {An estimate of {Lagrangian} eddy statistics and diffusion in the mixed layer of the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	volume = {66},
	issn = {00222402},
	url = {http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/xref?genre=article%7B&%7Dissn=0022-2402%7B&%7Dvolume=66%7B&%7Dissue=4%7B&%7Dspage=441},
	doi = {10.1357/002224008787157458},
	abstract = {A statistical analysis of surface drifter observations is used to compute eddy length and time scales and eddy diffusion in the Southern Ocean. Eddy diffusion values of the order of 104 m2 s–1 are found in the energetic western boundary currents north of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) and secondary peaks occur where the ACC negotiates topography. The diffusivity shows an increase from the Antarctic continent to the core of the ACC, then a slight decrease or a stable plateau within the ACC. North of the ACC, diffusivity generally decreases into the interior of ocean basins, except in the western boundary regions where values are maximum. Diffusivity is also calculated from simulated trajectories based on altimetric geostrophic velocities, with and without mean flow, as well as with simulated trajectories based on Ekman currents. Ekman currents at the drogue depth (15 m) have only a small impact, and the geostrophic currents dominate the eddy diffusivity. Complementary statistical analyses confirm these results. The surface drifter cross-stream eddy diffusion is used to test a simple parameterization based on satellite altimetric observations of eddy kinetic energy (EKE). For EKE ≥ 0.015 m2 s–2, κ = 1.35√EKELd m2 s–1, where Ld is the first baroclinic Rossby radius. This parameterization holds in the energetic ACC, consistent with an eddy field in the “frozen field” regime. Over the broader areas of weaker eddy fields, mixing is fairly uniform and stable at about κ = 1800 ± 1000 m2 s–1.},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	author = {Sallée, J B and Speer, Kevin and Morrow, R and Lumpkin, R},
	year = {2008},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-2402},
	pages = {441--463}
}

@article{roussenov_role_2004,
	title = {Role of bottom water transport and diapycnic mixing in determining the radiocarbon distribution in the {Pacific}},
	volume = {109},
	issn = {01480227},
	doi = {10.1029/2003JC002188},
	number = {6},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research C: Oceans},
	author = {Roussenov, Vassil and Williams, Richard G. and Follows, Michael J. and Key, Robert M.},
	year = {2004},
	keywords = {Deep circulation, Pacific Ocean, Radiocarbon modeling},
	pages = {1--18}
}

@article{roemmich_unabated_2015,
	title = {Unabated planetary warming and its ocean structure since 2006},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {1758-678X},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nclimate2513},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate2513},
	abstract = {Increasing heat content of the global ocean dominates the energy imbalance in the climate system1 . Here we show that ocean heat gain over the 0–2,000m layer continued at a rate of 0.4–0.6Wm−2 during 2006–2013. The depth dependence and spatial structure of temperature changes are described on the basis of the Argo Program’s2 accurate and spatially homogeneous data set, through comparison of three Argo-only analyses. Heat gain was divided equally between upper ocean, 0–500mand 500–2,000mcomponents. Surface temperatureandupper100mheat content trackedinterannual El Niño/Southern Oscillation fluctuations3 , but were offset by opposing variability from 100–500m. The net 0–500m global average temperaturewarmedby0.005◦ Cyr−1 . Between 500 and 2,000m steadier warming averaged 0.002 ◦Cyr−1 with a broad intermediate-depth maximum between 700 and 1,400m. Most of the heat gain (67 to 98\%) occurred in the Southern Hemisphere extratropical ocean. Although this hemispheric asymmetry is consistent with inhomogeneity of radiative forcing4 and the greater area of the Southern Hemisphere ocean, ocean dynamics also influence regional patterns},
	number = {February},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Roemmich, Dean and Church, John and Gilson, John and Monselesan, Didier and Sutton, Philip and Wijffels, Susan},
	year = {2015},
	note = {ISBN: 1758-678X},
	pages = {2--7}
}

@article{Rocha2016,
	title = {Mesoscale to {Submesoscale} {Wavenumber} {Spectra} in {Drake} {Passage}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-15-0087.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-15-0087.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThis study discusses the upper-ocean (0–200 m) horizontal wavenumber spectra in the Drake Passage from 13 yr of shipboard ADCP measurements, altimeter data, and a high-resolution numerical simulation. At scales between 10 and 200 km, the ADCP kinetic energy spectra approximately follow a k−3 power law. The observed flows are more energetic at the surface, but the shape of the kinetic energy spectra is independent of depth. These characteristics resemble predictions of isotropic interior quasigeostrophic turbulence. The ratio of across-track to along-track kinetic energy spectra, however, significantly departs from the expectation of isotropic interior quasigeostrophic turbulence. The inconsistency is dramatic at scales smaller than 40 km. A Helmholtz decomposition of the ADCP spectra and analyses of synthetic and numerical model data show that horizontally divergent, ageostrophic flows account for the discrepancy between the observed spectra and predictions of isotropic interior quasigeostrophic t...},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Rocha, Cesar B. and Chereskin, Teresa K. and Gille, Sarah T. and Menemenlis, Dimitris},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {601--620}
}

@article{riser_fifteen_2016,
	title = {Fifteen years of ocean observations with the global {Argo} array},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {1758-678X},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2872%5Cnhttp://10.1038/nclimate2872},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate2872},
	abstract = {More than 90\% of the heat energy accumulation in the climate system between 1971 and the present has been in the ocean. Thus, the ocean plays a crucial role in determining the climate of the planet. Observing the oceans is problematic even under the most favourable of conditions. Historically, shipboard ocean sampling has left vast expanses, particularly in the Southern Ocean, unobserved for long periods of time. Within the past 15 years, with the advent of the global Argo array of profiling floats, it has become possible to sample the upper 2,000 m of the ocean globally and uniformly in space and time. The primary goal of Argo is to create a systematic global network of profiling floats that can be integrated with other elements of the Global Ocean Observing System. The network provides freely available temperature and salinity data from the upper 2,000 m of the ocean with global coverage. The data are available within 24 hours of collection for use in a broad range of applications that focus on examining climate-relevant variability on seasonal to decadal timescales, multidecadal climate change, improved initialization of coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models and constraining ocean analysis and forecasting systems.},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Nature Clim. Change},
	author = {Riser, Stephen C and Freeland, Howard J and Roemmich, Dean and Wijffels, Susan and Troisi, Ariel and Belbeoch, Mathieu and Gilbert, Denis and Xu, Jianping and Pouliquen, Sylvie and Thresher, Ann and Le Traon, Pierre-Yves and Maze, Guillaume and Klein, Birgit and Ravichandran, M and Grant, Fiona and Poulain, Pierre-Marie and Suga, Toshio and Lim, Byunghwan and Sterl, Andreas and Sutton, Philip and Mork, Kjell-Arne and Velez-Belchi, Pedro Joaquin and Ansorge, Isabelle and King, Brian and Turton, Jon and Baringer, Molly and Jayne, Steven R},
	year = {2016},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {145--153}
}

@article{Qin2014,
	title = {Quantification of errors induced by temporal resolution on {Lagrangian} particles in an eddy-resolving model},
	volume = {76},
	issn = {14635003},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2014.02.002},
	abstract = {Lagrangian particle tracking within ocean models is an important tool for the examination of ocean circulation, ventilation timescales and connectivity and is increasingly being used to understand ocean biogeochemistry. Lagrangian trajectories are obtained by advecting particles within velocity fields derived from hydrodynamic ocean models. For studies of ocean flows on scales ranging from mesoscale up to basin scales, the temporal resolution of the velocity fields should ideally not be more than a few days to capture the high frequency variability that is inherent in mesoscale features. However, in reality, the model output is often archived at much lower temporal resolutions. Here, we quantify the differences in the Lagrangian particle trajectories embedded in velocity fields of varying temporal resolution. Particles are advected from 3-day to 30-day averaged fields in a high-resolution global ocean circulation model. We also investigate whether adding lateral diffusion to the particle movement can compensate for the reduced temporal resolution.Trajectory errors reveal the expected degradation of accuracy in the trajectory positions when decreasing the temporal resolution of the velocity field. Divergence timescales associated with averaging velocity fields up to 30. days are faster than the intrinsic dispersion of the velocity fields but slower than the dispersion caused by the interannual variability of the velocity fields. In experiments focusing on the connectivity along major currents, including western boundary currents, the volume transport carried between two strategically placed sections tends to increase with increased temporal averaging. Simultaneously, the average travel times tend to decrease. Based on these two bulk measured diagnostics, Lagrangian experiments that use temporal averaging of up to nine days show no significant degradation in the flow characteristics for a set of six currents investigated in more detail. The addition of random-walk-style diffusion does not mitigate the errors introduced by temporal averaging for large-scale open ocean Lagrangian simulations. ?? 2014 Elsevier Ltd.},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Qin, Xuerong and van Sebille, Erik and Sen Gupta, Alexander},
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {Connectivity transport, Divergence, Eddy kinetic energy, Mesoscale eddies, Western boundary currents},
	pages = {20--30}
}

@article{purkey_warming_nodate,
	title = {Warming of {Global} {Abyssal} and {Deep} {Southern} {Ocean} {Waters} between the 1990s and 2000s: {Contributions} to {Global} {Heat} and {Sea} {Level} {Rise} {Budgets}*},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JCLI3682.1},
	abstract = {Abyssal global and deep Southern Ocean temperature trends are quantified between the 1990s and 2000s to assess the role of recent warming of these regions in global heat and sea level budgets. The authors 1) compute warming rates with uncertainties along 28 full-depth, high-quality hydrographic sections that have been oc-cupied two or more times between 1980 and 2010; 2) divide the global ocean into 32 basins, defined by the topography and climatological ocean bottom temperatures; and then 3) estimate temperature trends in the 24 sampled basins. The three southernmost basins show a strong statistically significant abyssal warming trend, with that warming signal weakening to the north in the central Pacific, western Atlantic, and eastern Indian Oceans. Eastern Atlantic and western Indian Ocean basins show statistically insignificant abyssal cooling trends. Excepting the Arctic Ocean and Nordic seas, the rate of abyssal (below 4000 m) global ocean heat content change in the 1990s and 2000s is equivalent to a heat flux of 0.027 (60.009) W m 22 applied over the entire surface of the earth. Deep (1000–4000 m) warming south of the Subantarctic Front of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current adds 0.068 (60.062) W m 22 . The abyssal warming produces a 0.053 (60.017) mm yr 21 increase in global average sea level and the deep warming south of the Subantarctic Front adds another 0.093 (60.081) mm yr 21 . Thus, warming in these regions, ventilated primarily by Antarctic Bottom Water, accounts for a statistically significant fraction of the present global energy and sea level budgets.},
	urldate = {2016-07-01},
	author = {Purkey, Sarah G and Johnson, Gregory C}
}

@article{primeau_characterizing_2005,
	title = {Characterizing {Transport} between the {Surface} {Mixed} {Layer} and the {Ocean} {Interior} with a {Forward} and {Adjoint} {Global} {Ocean} {Transport} {Model}},
	volume = {35},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO2699.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO2699.1},
	abstract = {Abstract The theory of first-passage time distribution functions and its extension to last-passage time distribution functions are applied to the problem of tracking the movement of water masses to and from the surface mixed layer in a global ocean general circulation model. The first-passage time distribution function is used to determine in a probabilistic sense when and where a fluid element will make its first contact with the surface as a function of its position in the ocean interior. The last-passage time distribution is used to determine when and where a fluid element made its last contact with the surface. A computationally efficient method is presented for recursively computing the first few moments of the first- and last-passage time distributions by directly inverting the forward and adjoint transport operator. This approach allows integrated transport information to be obtained directly from the differential form of the transport operator without the need to perform lengthy multitracer time i...},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Primeau, François},
	year = {2005},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	pages = {545--564}
}

@article{Polzin2009,
	title = {An abyssal recipe},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {14635003},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2009.07.006},
	abstract = {Fine- and microstructure observations indicate bottom-intensified turbulent dissipation above rough bathymetry associated with internal wave breaking. Simple analytic representations for the depth profile of turbulent dissipation are proposed here under the assumption that the near bottom wavefield is dominated by a baroclinic tide. This scheme is intended for use in numerical models and thus captures only the gross features of detailed solutions to the energy balance of the internal wavefield. The possible sensitivity of the magnitude and vertical variability of the dissipation rate profile to various environmental parameters is discussed. An expression for the diapycnal buoyancy flux is presented that explicitly treats the difference between the height of an isopycnal above the mean bottom and the actual bottom. This returns a diapycnal velocity estimate that is consistent with both tracer observations of downwelling and a basin scale mass budget that requires upwelling.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2016-12-13},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Polzin, Kurt L.},
	year = {2009},
	pages = {298--309}
}

@article{Polzin1997,
	title = {Spatial {Variability} of {Turbulent} {Mixing} in the {Spatial} {Variability} {Abyssal} {Ocean}},
	volume = {276},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/276/5309/93},
	doi = {10.1126/science.276.5309.93},
	abstract = {Ocean microstructure data show that turbulent mixing in the deep Brazil Basin of the South Atlantic Ocean is weak at all depths above smooth abyssal plains and the South American Continental Rise. The diapycnal diffusivity there was estimated to be less than or approximately equal to 0.1 × 10-4 meters squared per second. In contrast, mixing rates are large throughout the water column above the rough Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and the diffusivity deduced for the bottom-most 150 meters exceeds 5 × 10-4 meters squared per second. Such patterns in vertical mixing imply that abyssal circulations have complex spatial structures that are linked to the underlying bathymetry.},
	number = {5309},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Polzin, K.L. and Toole, J.M. and Ledwell, James R. and Schmitt, Rw},
	year = {1997},
	pmid = {9082993},
	note = {ISBN: 0036-8075},
	pages = {93--96}
}

@article{Paris2013,
	title = {Connectivity {Modeling} {System}: {A} probabilistic modeling tool for the multi-scale tracking of biotic and abiotic variability in the ocean},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {13648152},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2012.12.006},
	doi = {10.1016/j.envsoft.2012.12.006},
	abstract = {Pelagic organisms' movement and motion of buoyant particles are driven by processes operating across multiple, spatial and temporal scales. We developed a probabilistic, multi-scale model, the Connectivity Modeling System (CMS), to gain a mechanistic understanding of dispersion and migration processes in the ocean. The model couples offline a new nested-grid technique to a stochastic Lagrangian framework where individual variability is introduced by drawing particles' attributes at random from specified probability distributions of traits. This allows 1) to track seamlessly a large number of both actively swimming and inertial particles over multiple, independent ocean model domains and 2) to generate ensemble forecasts or hindcasts of the particles' three dimensional trajectories, dispersal kernels, and transition probability matrices used for connectivity estimates. In addition, CMS provides Lagrangian descriptions of oceanic phenomena (advection, dispersion, retention) and can be used in a broad range of oceanographic applications, from the fate of pollutants to the pathways of water masses in the global ocean. Here we describe the CMS modular system where particle behavior can be augmented with specific features, and a parallel module implementation simplifies data management and CPU intensive computations associated with solving for the tracking of millions of active particles. Some novel features include on-the-fly data access of operational hydrodynamic models, individual particle variability and inertial motion, and multi-nesting capabilities to optimize resolution. We demonstrate the performance of the interpolation algorithm by testing accuracy in tracing the flow stream lines in both time and space and the efficacy of probabilistic modeling in evaluating the bio-physical coupling against empirical data. Finally, following recommended practices for the development of community models, we provide an open source code with a series of coupled standalone, optional modules detailed in a user's guide. ?? 2012 Elsevier Ltd.},
	journal = {Environmental Modelling and Software},
	author = {Paris, Claire B. and Helgers, Judith and van Sebille, Erik and Srinivasan, Ashwanth},
	year = {2013},
	pmid = {15003161},
	note = {arXiv: gr-qc/9809069v1
Publisher: Elsevier Ltd
ISBN: 1364-8152},
	keywords = {Biotic variability, Inertial motion, Lagrangian, Multi-scale, Open-source, Probabilistic},
	pages = {47--54}
}

@article{ogorman_contrasting_2014,
	title = {Contrasting responses of mean and extreme snowfall to climate change},
	volume = {512},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature13625},
	doi = {10.1038/nature13625},
	abstract = {Snowfall is an important element of the climate system, and one that is expected to change in a warming climate(1-4). Both mean snowfall and the intensity distribution of snowfall are important, with heavy snowfall events having particularly large economic and human impacts(5-7). Simulations with climate models indicate that annual mean snowfall declines with warming in most regions but increases in regions with very low surface temperatures(3,4). The response of heavy snowfall events to a changing climate, however, is unclear. Here I show that in simulations with climate models under a scenario of high emissions of greenhouse gases, by the late twenty-first century there are smaller fractional changes in the intensities of daily snowfall extremes than in mean snowfall overmany Northern Hemisphere land regions. For example, for monthly climatological temperatures just below freezing and surface elevations below 1,000 metres, the 99.99th percentile of daily snowfall decreases by 8\% in the multimodel median, compared to a 65\% reduction in mean snowfall. Both mean and extreme snowfall must decrease for a sufficiently large warming, but the climatological temperature above which snowfall extremes decrease with warming in the simulations is as high as -9 degrees C, compared to -14 degrees C for mean snowfall. These results are supported by a physically based theory that is consistent with the observed rain-snow transition. According to the theory, snowfall extremes occur near an optimal temperature that is insensitive to climate warming, and this results in smaller fractional changes for higher percentiles of daily snowfall. The simulated changes in snowfall that I find would influence surface snow and its hazards; these changes also suggest that it may be difficult to detect a regional climate-change signal in snowfall extremes.},
	number = {7515},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {O'Gorman, Paul A.},
	year = {2014},
	pmid = {25164753},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group
ISBN: 0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	pages = {416--U401}
}

@article{ninove_spatial_2016,
	title = {Spatial scales of temperature and salinity variability estimated from {Argo} observations},
	volume = {12},
	issn = {18120792},
	doi = {10.5194/os-12-1-2016},
	abstract = {{\textless}p{\textgreater}Argo observations from 2005 to 2013 are used to characterize spatial scales temperature and salinity variations from the surface down to 1500 m. Simulations are first performed to analyze the sensitivity of results to Argo sampling; they show that several years of Argo observations are required to estimate the spatial scales of ocean variability over 20° \&times; 20° boxes. Spatial scales are then computed over several large scale areas. Zonal and meridional spatial scales (\textit{Lx} and \textit{Ly} which are also zero crossing of covariance functions) vary as expected with latitudes. Scales are of about 100 km at high latitudes and more of 700 km in the Indian and Pacific equatorial/tropical regions. Zonal and meridional scales are similar: except in these tropical/equatorial regions where zonal scales are much larger (by a factor of 2 to 3) than meridional scales. Spatial scales are the largest close to the surface and have a general tendency for temperature to increase in deeper layers. There are significant differences between temperature and salinity scales, in particular, in the deep ocean. Results are consistent with previous studies based on sparse in-situ observations or satellite altimetry. They provide, however, for the first time a global description of temperature and salinity scales of variability and a characterization of their variations according to depths.{\textless}/p{\textgreater}},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Ocean Science},
	author = {Ninove, F. and Le Traon, P. Y. and Remy, E. and Guinehut, S.},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {1--7}
}

@article{nikurashin_routes_2012,
	title = {Routes to energy dissipation for geostrophic flows in the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {1752-0894},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/ngeo1657},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo1657},
	abstract = {The ocean circulation is forced at a global scale by winds and fluxes of heat and fresh water. Kinetic energy is dissipated at much smaller scales in the turbulent boundary layers and in the ocean interior1, 2, where turbulent mixing controls the transport and storage of tracers such as heat and carbon dioxide3, 4. The primary site of wind power input is the Southern Ocean, where the westerly winds are aligned with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current5. The potential energy created here is converted into a vigorous geostrophic eddy field through baroclinic instabilities. The eddy energy can power mixing in the ocean interior6, 7, 8, but the mechanisms governing energy transfer to the dissipation scale are poorly constrained. Here we present simulations that simultaneously resolve meso- and submeso-scale motions as well as internal waves generated by topography in the Southern Ocean. In our simulations, more than 80\% of the wind power input is converted from geostrophic eddies to smaller-scale motions in the abyssal ocean. The conversion is catalysed by rough, small-scale topography. The bulk of the energy is dissipated within the bottom 100 m of the ocean, but about 20\% is radiated and dissipated away from topography in the ocean interior, where it can sustain turbulent mixing. We conclude that in the absence of rough topography, the turbulent mixing in the ocean interior would be diminished.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Nikurashin, Maxim and Vallis, Geoffrey K. and Adcroft, Alistair},
	year = {2012},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group
ISBN: 1752-0894},
	pages = {48--51}
}

@article{nikurashin_theory_2012,
	title = {A {Theory} of the {Interhemispheric} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation} and {Associated} {Stratification}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-11-0189.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-11-0189.1},
	abstract = {AbstractA quantitative theoretical model of the meridional overturning circulation and associated deep stratification in an interhemispheric, single-basin ocean with a circumpolar channel is presented. The theory includes the effects of wind, eddies, and diapycnal mixing and predicts the deep stratification and overturning streamfunction in terms of the surface forcing and other parameters of the problem. It relies on a matching among three regions: the circumpolar channel at high southern latitudes, a region of isopycnal outcrop at high northern latitudes, and the ocean basin between.The theory describes both the middepth and abyssal cells of a circulation representing North Atlantic Deep Water and Antarctic Bottom Water. It suggests that, although the strength of the middepth overturning cell is primarily set by the wind stress in the circumpolar channel, middepth stratification results from a balance between the wind-driven upwelling in the channel and deep-water formation at high northern latitudes. D...},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2016-12-09},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Nikurashin, Maxim and Vallis, Geoffrey and Nikurashin, Maxim and Vallis, Geoffrey},
	month = oct,
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {Abyssal circulation, Large-scale motions, Meridional overturning circulation, Ocean circulation, Ocean dynamics, Thermohaline circulation},
	pages = {1652--1667}
}

@article{nikurashin_theory_2011,
	title = {A {Theory} of {Deep} {Stratification} and {Overturning} {Circulation} in the {Ocean}},
	volume = {41},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JPO4529.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JPO4529.1},
	abstract = {Abstract A simple theoretical model of the deep stratification and meridional overturning circulation in an idealized single-basin ocean with a circumpolar channel is presented. The theory includes the effects of wind, eddies, and diapycnal mixing; predicts the deep stratification in terms of the surface forcing and other problem parameters; makes no assumption of zero residual circulation; and consistently accounts for the interaction between the circumpolar channel and the rest of the ocean. The theory shows that dynamics of the overturning circulation can be characterized by two limiting regimes, corresponding to weak and strong diapycnal mixing. The transition between the two regimes is described by a nondimensional number characterizing the strength of the diffusion-driven compared to the wind-driven overturning circulation. In the limit of weak diapycnal mixing, deep stratification throughout the ocean is produced by the effects of wind and eddies in a circumpolar channel and maintained even in the ...},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2016-12-09},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Nikurashin, Maxim and Vallis, Geoffrey},
	month = mar,
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {Diapycnal mixing, Ocean circulation},
	pages = {485--502}
}

@article{naveira_garabato_three-dimensional_2014,
	title = {The three-dimensional overturning circulation of the {Southern} {Ocean} during the {WOCE} era},
	volume = {120},
	issn = {00796611},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2013.07.018},
	doi = {10.1016/j.pocean.2013.07.018},
	abstract = {A box inverse model of the Southern Ocean during the World Ocean Circulation Experiment is constructed to investigate the three-dimensional structure of the regional overturning circulation in that era. The model has many features in common with various preceding inverse studies, but also contains several novel elements that make it well suited for addressing many of the significant uncertainties that surround the circulation at present. The net overturning circulation of the Southern Ocean is found to consist of two well-defined cells of similar strength. The upper cell consists of a northward transport of 18.8??5.5Sv of surface, mode and intermediate waters lighter than the 27.5kgm-3 isoneutral, and an equivalent southward flow in the approximate 27.5-27.9kgm-3 neutral density range, encompassing the bulk of the Upper Circumpolar Deep Water. The lower cell involves the northward export of 18.6??0.9Sv of Antarctic Bottom Water and Lower Circumpolar Deep Water denser than 28.08kgm-3, and an opposing transport in the lighter classes of that water mass. Substantial structural differences between the overturning circulations of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific basins are indicated by the model's solution. Overall, the diagnosed Southern Ocean circulation shares many qualitative and some quantitative features with previous inverse estimates, particularly as regards the large-scale, depth-integrated lateral circulation and associated energy fluxes in the subtropics and in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, and the strength of the upper overturning cell. However, it also suggests several significant adjustments to current views of the regional circulation. Most notable amongst these are: the subpolar circulation of the Southern Ocean is more vigorous and zonally interconnected than generally thought; the associated lower overturning cell is more intense than indicated by most preceding estimates; contrary to common perception, sub-surface mixing processes play a role of comparable importance to air-sea-ice exchanges of buoyancy in underpinning the dianeutral closure of the Southern Ocean overturning, even at shallow (mode and intermediate water) levels; and the connection between North Atlantic deep water formation and Southern Ocean upwelling is fundamentally three-dimensional, such that deep waters from the North Atlantic must upwell dianeutrally before being returned to the permanent pycnocline of the northern oceans. ?? 2013 Elsevier Ltd.},
	journal = {Progress in Oceanography},
	author = {Naveira Garabato, Alberto C. and Williams, Adam P. and Bacon, Sheldon},
	year = {2014},
	note = {Publisher: Elsevier Ltd},
	pages = {41--78}
}

@article{naveira_garabato_microscale_2016,
	title = {A microscale view of mixing and overturning across the {Antarctic} {Circumpolar} {Current}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-15-0025.1?ai=pjo9&ui=7n2x&af=T},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-15-0025.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThe relative roles of isoneutral stirring by mesoscale eddies and dianeutral stirring by small-scale turbulence in setting the large-scale temperature - salinity relation of the Southern Ocean against the action of the overturning circulation are assessed, by analysing a set of shear and temperature microstructure measurements across Drake Passage in a ‘triple decomposition’ framework. It is shown that a picture of mixing and overturning across a region of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) may be constructed from a relatively modest number of microstructure profiles. The rates of isoneutral and dianeutral stirring are found to exhibit distinct, characteristic and abrupt variations: most notably, a one-to-two order of magnitude suppression of isoneutral stirring in the upper kilometre of the ACC frontal jets, and an order-of-magnitude intensification of dianeutral stirring in the sub-pycnocline and deepest layers of the ACC. These variations balance an overturning circulation with meridional ...},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Naveira Garabato, Alberto C. and Polzin, Kurt L. and Ferrari, Raffaele and Zika, Jan D. and Forryan, Alexander},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {233--254}
}

@article{munday_eddy_2013,
	title = {Eddy {Saturation} of {Equilibrated} {Circumpolar} {Currents}},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-12-095.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-12-095.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThis study uses a sector configuration of an ocean general circulation model to examine the sensitivity of circumpolar transport and meridional overturning to changes in Southern Ocean wind stress and global diapycnal mixing. At eddy-permitting, and finer, resolution, the sensitivity of circumpolar transport to forcing magnitude is drastically reduced. At sufficiently high resolution, there is little or no sensitivity of circumpolar transport to wind stress, even in the limit of no wind. In contrast, the meridional overturning circulation continues to vary with Southern Ocean wind stress, but with reduced sensitivity in the limit of high wind stress. Both the circumpolar transport and meridional overturning continue to vary with diapycnal diffusivity at all model resolutions. The circumpolar transport becomes less sensitive to changes in diapycnal diffusivity at higher resolution, although sensitivity always remains. In contrast, the overturning circulation is more sensitive to change in diapycnal...},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Munday, David R. and Johnson, Helen L. and Marshall, David P.},
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {1, 2 of the official, ams l, author use only, circumpolar currents, eddy saturation of equilibrated, generated using v3, journal page layout for, not for submission, tex template},
	pages = {507--532}
}

@article{morrison_mechanisms_2016,
	title = {Mechanisms of {Southern} {Ocean} heat uptake and transport in a global eddying climate model},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0579.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0579.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThe Southern Ocean plays a dominant role in anthropogenic oceanic heat uptake. Strong northward transport of the heat content anomaly limits warming of the sea surface temperature in the uptake region and allows the heat uptake to be sustained. Using an eddy-rich global climate model, the processes controlling the northward transport and convergence of the heat anomaly in the mid-latitude Southern Ocean are investigated in an idealized 1\% yr−1 increasing CO2 simulation. Heat budget analyses reveal that different processes dominate to the north and south of the main convergence region. The heat transport northward from the uptake region in the south is driven primarily by passive advection of the heat content anomaly by the existing time mean circulation, with a smaller 20\% contribution from enhanced upwelling. The heat anomaly converges in the mid-latitude deep mixed layers, because there is not a corresponding increase in the mean heat transport out of the deep mixed layers northward into the mod...},
	number = {2015},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Morrison, Adele K. and Griffies, Stephen M. and Winton, Michael and Anderson, Whit G. and Sarmiento, Jorge L.},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {160122143729005}
}

@article{Morrison2015,
	title = {Upwelling in the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	volume = {68},
	issn = {0031-9228},
	url = {http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/magazine/physicstoday/article/68/1/10.1063/PT.3.2654},
	doi = {10.1063/PT.3.2654},
	abstract = {Because deep water in the Southern Ocean is cold, centuries old, and rich in nutrients, its circulation exerts an outsized influence on Earth’s heat balance, the carbon cycle, and much of ocean biology.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Physics Today},
	author = {Morrison, Adele K. and Frölicher, Thomas L. and Sarmiento, Jorge L.},
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {Physics Today January 2015, page 27-32},
	pages = {27--32}
}

@article{melet_climatic_2016,
	title = {Climatic {Impacts} of {Parameterized} {Local} and {Remote} {Tidal} {Mixing}},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0153.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0153.1},
	abstract = {Turbulent mixing driven by breaking internal tides plays a primary role in the meridional overturning and oceanic heat budget. Most current climate models explicitly parameterize only the local dissipation of internal tides at the generation sites, representing the remote dissipation of low-mode internal tides that propagate away through a uniform background diffusivity. In this study, a simple energetically consistent parameterization of the low-mode internal-tide dissipation is derived and implemented in the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Earth System Model with GOLD component (GFDL-ESM2G). The impact of remote and local internal-tide dissipation on the ocean state is examined using a series of simulations with the same total amount of energy input for mixing, but with different scalings of the vertical profile of dissipation with the stratification and with different idealized scenarios for the distribution of the low-mode internal-tide energy dissipation: uniformly over ocean basins, continental slopes, or continental shelves. In these idealized scenarios, the ocean state, including the meridional overturning circulation, ocean ventilation, main thermocline thickness, and ocean heat uptake, is particularly sensitive to the vertical distribution of mixing by breaking low-mode internal tides. Less sensitivity is found to the horizontal distribution of mixing, provided that distribution is in the open ocean. Mixing on coastal shelves only impacts the large-scale circulation and water mass properties where it modifies water masses originating on shelves. More complete descriptions of the distribution of the remote part of internal-tide-driven mixing, particularly in the vertical and relative to water mass formation regions, are therefore required to fully parameterize ocean turbulent mixing.},
	language = {en},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Melet, Angélique and Legg, Sonya and Hallberg, Robert},
	month = may,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {3473--3500}
}

@article{Melet2014,
	title = {Sensitivity of the {Ocean} {State} to {Lee} {Wave}–{Driven} {Mixing}},
	volume = {44},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-13-072.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-13-072.1},
	abstract = {AbstractDiapycnal mixing plays a key role in maintaining the ocean stratification and the meridional overturning circulation (MOC). In the ocean interior, it is mainly sustained by breaking internal waves. Two important classes of internal waves are internal tides and lee waves, generated by barotropic tides and geostrophic flows interacting with rough topography, respectively. Currently, regarding internal wave–driven mixing, most climate models only explicitly parameterize the local dissipation of internal tides. In this study, the authors explore the combined effects of internal tide– and lee wave–driven mixing on the ocean state. A series of sensitivity experiments using the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory CM2G ocean–ice–atmosphere coupled model are performed, including a parameterization of lee wave–driven mixing using a recent estimate for the global map of energy conversion into lee waves, in addition to the tidal mixing parameterization. It is shown that, although the global energy input in ...},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2016-12-13},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Melet, Angélique and Hallberg, Robert and Legg, Sonya and Nikurashin, Maxim},
	month = mar,
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {Circulation/ Dynamics, Diapycnal mixing, Internal waves, Models and modeling, Ocean models, Parameterization, Subgrid-scale processes},
	pages = {900--921}
}

@article{Melet2013,
	title = {Sensitivity of the {Ocean} {State} to the {Vertical} {Distribution} of {Internal}-{Tide}-{Driven} {Mixing}},
	volume = {43},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-12-055.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-12-055.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThe ocean interior stratification and meridional overturning circulation are largely sustained by diapycnal mixing. The breaking of internal tides is a major source of diapycnal mixing. Many recent climate models parameterize internal-tide breaking using the scheme of St. Laurent et al. While this parameterization dynamically accounts for internal-tide generation, the vertical distribution of the resultant mixing is ad hoc, prescribing energy dissipation to decay exponentially above the ocean bottom with a fixed-length scale. Recently, Polzin formulated a dynamically based parameterization, in which the vertical profile of dissipation decays algebraically with a varying decay scale, accounting for variable stratification using Wentzel–Kramers–Brillouin (WKB) stretching. This study compares two simulations using the St. Laurent and Polzin formulations in the Climate Model, version 2G (CM2G), ocean–ice–atmosphere coupled model, with the same formulation for internal-tide energy input. Focusing mainl...},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2016-12-13},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Melet, Angelique and Hallberg, Robert and Legg, Sonya and Polzin, Kurt},
	month = mar,
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {Diapycnal mixing, Internal waves, Ocean models, Parameterization, Subgrid-scale processes},
	pages = {602--615}
}

@article{mazloff_eddy-permitting_2010,
	title = {An {Eddy}-{Permitting} {Southern} {Ocean} {State} {Estimate}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2009JPO4236.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JPO4236.1},
	abstract = {Abstract An eddy-permitting general circulation model of the Southern Ocean is fit by constrained least squares to a large observational dataset during 2005–06. Data used include Argo float profiles, CTD synoptic sections, Southern Elephant Seals as Oceanographic Samplers (SEaOS) instrument-mounted seal profiles, XBTs, altimetric observations [Envisat, Geosat, Jason-1, and Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX)/Poseidon], and infrared and microwave radiometer observed sea surface temperature. An adjoint model is used to determine descent directions in minimizing a misfit function, each of whose elements has been weighted by an estimate of the observational plus model error. The model is brought into near agreement with the data by adjusting its control vector, here consisting of initial and meteorological boundary conditions. Although total consistency has not yet been achieved, the existing solution is in good agreement with the great majority of the 2005 and 2006 Southern Ocean observations and better repr...},
	number = {5},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Mazloff, Matthew R. and Heimbach, Patrick and Wunsch, Carl},
	year = {2010},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	keywords = {Eddies, Meridional overturning circulation, Ocean circulation, Southern Ocean, Transport},
	pages = {880--899}
}

@article{Mazloff2013,
	title = {The {Force} {Balance} of the {Southern} {Ocean} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-12-069.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-12-069.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThe Southern Ocean (SO) limb of the meridional overturning circulation (MOC) is characterized by three vertically stacked cells, each with a transport of about 10 Sv (Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1). The buoyancy transport in the SO is dominated by the upper and middle MOC cells, with the middle cell accounting for most of the buoyancy transport across the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. A Southern Ocean state estimate for the years 2005 and 2006 with ⅙° resolution is used to determine the forces balancing this MOC. Diagnosing the zonal momentum budget in density space allows an exact determination of the adiabatic and diapycnal components balancing the thickness-weighted (residual) meridional transport. It is found that, to lowest order, the transport consists of an eddy component, a directly wind-driven component, and a component in balance with mean pressure gradients. Nonvanishing time-mean pressure gradients arise because isopycnal layers intersect topography or the surface in a circumpolar integral, leading...},
	number = {6},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Mazloff, Matthew R. and Ferrari, Raffaele and Schneider, Tapio},
	year = {2013},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	keywords = {Forcing, Meridional overturning circulation, Momentum, Southern Ocean},
	pages = {1193--1208}
}

@article{mashayek_topographic_2017,
	title = {Topographic enhancement of vertical turbulent mixing in the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/ncomms14197},
	doi = {10.1038/ncomms14197},
	abstract = {Turbulent mixing next to rough topographic features is believed to be key in the closure of the abyssal ocean circulation. Here, using Southern Ocean data, the authors show that mixing hotspots trap fluid and mix it for long periods, explaining the global impact of relatively few mixing hotspots.},
	urldate = {2018-11-10},
	journal = {Nature Communications},
	author = {Mashayek, A. and Ferrari, R. and Merrifield, S. and Ledwell, J. R. and St Laurent, L. and Garabato, A. Naveira},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	keywords = {Fluid dynamics, Physical oceanography},
	pages = {14197}
}

@article{matsumoto_natural_2004,
	title = {Natural {Radiocarbon} {Distribution} in the {Deep} {Ocean}},
	abstract = {We present for the first time objectively mapped natural radiocarbon (14C) abundance in the global deep ocean using mostly new measurements from the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE). Compared to earlier data from the Geochemical Ocean Sections Study, the new data number almost seven times more. Also, the WOCE data collected during the 1990s have sufficient spatial coverage to make objective mapping meaningful. The new natural Δ14C maps clearly show the deep path of the well-known global thermohaline circulation. We compare the new maps with simulation results from three versions of the Princeton Ocean Biogeochemistry Model, as a means to illustrate how such maps can be used to constrain ocean carbon cycle models. We show that the three Princeton models, which are not necessarily atypical of currently available coarse resolution ocean general circulation models, have a wide range of behavior in simulating the deep natural 14C distribution. Some deviate significantly from the observed in both amplitude and spatial pattern. The same models make significantly different centennial time scale projections of future anthropogenic carbon uptake by the ocean. This highlights the importance of using the new natural 14C data to properly evaluate the performance of ocean carbon cycle models in ventilating the deep ocean.},
	number = {1981},
	journal = {Global Environmental Change},
	author = {Matsumoto, Katsumi M and Ey, Robert M},
	year = {2004},
	note = {ISBN: 4-88704-133-0},
	keywords = {antarctic bottom water, circulation experiment, circumpolar deep water, north atlantic deep, ocean general circulation model, ocean ventilation, pacific deep water, radiocarbon, thermohaline circulation, water, woce, world ocean},
	pages = {45--58}
}

@article{matsumoto_radiocarbon-based_2007,
	title = {Radiocarbon-based circulation age of the world oceans},
	volume = {112},
	issn = {21699291},
	doi = {10.1029/2007JC004095},
	abstract = {[1] The distributions of deep ocean C data are often used to illustrate the rate of deep ocean circulation. The associated conventional C-14 ages show a difference of 1000 years between the North Atlantic and the Southern Ocean and a difference of another 1000 years between the Southern Ocean and the North Pacific. These differences may be interpreted directly and mistakenly as the timescale of circulation. The characterization of the deep ocean circulation being millennial is common. Using objectively gridded, natural Delta C-14 ``data'' of Key et al. ( 2004), I recast Delta C-14 in terms of circulation by accounting for (1) long-surface ocean reservoir C-14 ages and ( 2) two sources of deep water formed in the North Atlantic and around Antarctica. The new distribution of ``circulation C-14 ages'' is more consistent with the deep ocean being characterized by a centennial timescale than a millennial timescale. Also, the role of the southern sourced deep water is now made more obvious. By accounting for the two important controls on oceanic C-14 that are not well known outside the field of chemical oceanography, the new map will be useful as an illustration of global deep ocean circulation to the wider scientific community and as a pedagogical tool to new students in Earth sciences and oceanography.},
	number = {9},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Matsumoto, Katsumi},
	year = {2007},
	note = {ISBN: 0148-0227},
	pages = {1--7}
}

@article{mashayek_influence_2015,
	title = {Influence of {Enhanced} {Abyssal} {Diapycnal} {Mixing} on {Stratification} and the {Ocean} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-15-0039.1%5Cnhttp://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-15-0039.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-15-0039.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThe meridional overturning circulation (MOC) is composed of interconnected overturning cells that transport cold dense abyssal waters formed at high latitudes back to the surface. Turbulent diapycnal mixing plays a primary role in setting the rate and patterns of the various overturning cells that constitute the MOC. The focus of the analyses in this paper will be on the influence of sharp vertical variations in mixing on the MOC and ocean stratification. Mixing is enhanced close to the ocean bottom topography where internal waves generated by the interaction of tides and geostrophic motions with topography break. It is shown that the sharp vertical variations in mixing lead to the formation of three layers with different dynamical balances governing meridional flow. Specifically, an abyssal bottom boundary layer forms above the ocean floor where mixing is largest and hosts the northward transport of the heaviest waters from the southern channel to the closed basins. A deep layer forms above the bottom layer in which the upwelled waters return south. A third adiabatic layer lies above the other two. While the adiabatic layer has been studied in detail in recent years, the deep and bottom layers are less appreciated. It is shown that the bottom layer, which is not resolved or allowed for in most idealized models, must be present to satisfy the no flux boundary condition at the ocean floor and that its thickness is set by the vertical profile of mixing. The deep layer spans a considerable depth range of the ocean within which the stratification scale is set by mixing, in line with the classic view of Munk in 1966.},
	number = {10},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Mashayek, A and Ferrari, R and Nikurashin, M and Peltier, W R},
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {Abyssal circulation, Atm/Ocean Structure/ Phenomena, Bottom currents/bottom water, Circulation/ Dynamics, Diapycnal mixing, Eddies, Ocean circulation},
	pages = {2580--2597}
}
@article{Marshall2012,
	title = {Closure of the meridional overturning circulation through {Southern} {Ocean} upwelling},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {1752-0894},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1391},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo1391},
	abstract = {The meridional overturning circulation of the ocean plays a central role in climate and climate variability by storing and transporting heat, fresh water and carbon around the globe. Historically, the focus of research has been on the North Atlantic Basin, a primary site where water sinks from the surface to depth, triggered by loss of heat, and therefore buoyancy, to the atmosphere. A key part of the overturning puzzle, however, is the return path from the interior ocean to the surface through upwelling in the Southern Ocean. This return path is largely driven by winds. It has become clear over the past few years that the importance of Southern Ocean upwelling for our understanding of climate rivals that of North Atlantic downwelling, because it controls the rate at which ocean reservoirs of heat and carbon communicate with the surface.},
	number = {3},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Marshall, John and Speer, Kevin},
	year = {2012},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group
ISBN: 1752-0894},
	pages = {171--180}
}

@article{marshall_residual-mean_2003,
	title = {Residual-{Mean} {Solutions} for the {Antarctic} {Circumpolar} {Current} and {Its} {Associated} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2003)033%3C2341:RSFTAC%3E2.0.CO;2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2003)033<2341:RSFTAC>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Residual-mean theory is applied to the streamwise-averaged Antarctic Circumpolar Current to arrive at a concise description of the processes that set up its stratification and meridional overturning circulation on an f plane. Simple solutions are found in which transfer by geostrophic eddies colludes with applied winds and buoyancy fluxes to determine the depth and stratification of the thermocline and the pattern of associated (residual) meridional overturning circulation.},
	number = {11},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Marshall, John and Radko, Timour},
	year = {2003},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	pages = {2341--2354}
}

@article{marshall_hydrostatic_1997,
	title = {Hydrostatic, quasi-hydrostatic, and nonhydrostatic ocean modeling},
	volume = {102},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	doi = {10.1029/96JC02776},
	abstract = {JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 102, NO. C3, PAGES 5733-5752, MARCH 15, 1997 Hydrostatic, quasi-hydrostatic, and nonhydrostatic ocean modeling John , Chris Hill, Lev Perelman, and Alistair Center for Meteorology and Physical},
	number = {C3},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Marshall, John and Hill, Chris and Perelman, Lev and Adcroft, Alistair},
	year = {1997},
	note = {ISBN: 2156-2202},
	keywords = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/96JC02776, doi:10.1029/9},
	pages = {5733}
}

@article{manabe_multiple-century_1994,
	title = {Multiple-{Century} {Response} of a {Coupled} {Ocean}-{Atmosphere} {Model} to an {Increase} of {Atmospheric} {Carbon} {Dioxide}},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/1520-0442%281994%29007%3C0005%3AMCROAC%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0442(1994)007<0005:MCROAC>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {To speculate on the future change of climate over several centuries, three 500-year integrations of a coupled ocean-atmosphere model were performed. In addition to the standard integration in which the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide remains unchanged, two integrations are conducted. In one integration, the C02 concentration increases by 1\% yr−1 (compounded) until it reaches four times the initial value at the 140th year and remains unchanged thereafter. In another integration, the C02 concentration also increases at the rate of 1\% yr−1 until it reaches twice the initial value at the 70th year and remains unchanged thereafter. One of the most notable features of the C02-quadrupling integration is the gradual disappearance of thermohaline circulations in most of the model oceans during the first 250-year period, leaving behind wind-driven cells. For example, thermohaline circulation nearly vanishes in the North Atlantic during the fist 200 years of the integration. In the Weddell and Ross seas, thermohaline circulation becomes weaker and shallower, thereby reducing the rate of bottom water formation and weakening the northward flow of bottom water in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. The weakening or near disappearance of thermohaline circulation described above is attributable mainly to the capping of the model oceans by relatively fresh water in high latitudes where the excess of precipitation over evaporation increases markedly due to the enhanced poleward moisture transport in the warmer model troposphere. In the C02-doubling integration, the thermohaline circulation weakens by a factor of more than 2 in the North Atlantic during the first 150 years but almost recovers its original intensity by the 500th year. The increase and downward penetration of positive heat and temperature anomaly in low and middle latitudes of the North Atlantic helps to increase the density contrast between the sinking and rising regions, contributing to this slow recovery. The recovery is aided by the gradual increase in surface salinity that accompanies the intensification of the thermohaline circulation. During the 500-year period of the doubling and quadrupling experiments, the global mean surface air temperature increases by about 3.5°C and 7°C, respectively. The rise of sea level due to the thermal expansion of sea water is about 1 and 1.8 m, respectively, and could be much larger if the contribution of meltwater from continental ice sheets were included. It is speculated that the two experiments described above provide a probable range of future climate change.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-04-21},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Manabe, Syukuro and Stouffer, Ronald J.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1994},
	pages = {5--23}
}

@incollection{mackinnon_diapycnal_2013,
	title = {Diapycnal {Mixing} {Processes} in the {Ocean} {Interior}},
	volume = {103},
	isbn = {978-0-12-391851-2},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123918512000076},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	booktitle = {International {Geophysics}},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	author = {MacKinnon, Jennifer and St Laurent, Lou and Naveira Garabato, Alberto C.},
	year = {2013},
	doi = {10.1016/B978-0-12-391851-2.00007-6},
	pages = {159--183}
}

@article{mackinnon_climate_2017,
	title = {Climate {Process} {Team} on {Internal} {Wave}–{Driven} {Ocean} {Mixing}},
	volume = {98},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0030.1},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0030.1},
	abstract = {AbstractDiapycnal mixing plays a primary role in the thermodynamic balance of the ocean and, consequently, in oceanic heat and carbon uptake and storage. Though observed mixing rates are on average consistent with values required by inverse models, recent attention has focused on the dramatic spatial variability, spanning several orders of magnitude, of mixing rates in both the upper and deep ocean. Away from ocean boundaries, the spatiotemporal patterns of mixing are largely driven by the geography of generation, propagation, and dissipation of internal waves, which supply much of the power for turbulent mixing. Over the last 5 years and under the auspices of U.S. Climate Variability and Predictability Program (CLIVAR), a National Science Foundation (NSF)- and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)-supported Climate Process Team has been engaged in developing, implementing, and testing dynamics-based parameterizations for internal wave–driven turbulent mixing in global ocean models. The w...},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {MacKinnon, Jennifer A. and Zhao, Zhongxiang and Whalen, Caitlin B. and Waterhouse, Amy F. and Trossman, David S. and Sun, Oliver M. and St. Laurent, Louis C. and Simmons, Harper L. and Polzin, Kurt and Pinkel, Robert and Pickering, Andrew and Norton, Nancy J. and Nash, Jonathan D. and Musgrave, Ruth and Merchant, Lynne M. and Melet, Angelique V. and Mater, Benjamin and Legg, Sonya and Large, William G. and Kunze, Eric and Klymak, Jody M. and Jochum, Markus and Jayne, Steven R. and Hallberg, Robert W. and Griffies, Stephen M. and Diggs, Steve and Danabasoglu, Gokhan and Chassignet, Eric P. and Buijsman, Maarten C. and Bryan, Frank O. and Briegleb, Bruce P. and Barna, Andrew and Arbic, Brian K. and Ansong, Joseph K. and Alford, Matthew H. and MacKinnon, Jennifer A. and Zhao, Zhongxiang and Whalen, Caitlin B. and Waterhouse, Amy F. and Trossman, David S. and Sun, Oliver M. and Laurent, Louis C. St. and Simmons, Harper L. and Polzin, Kurt and Pinkel, Robert and Pickering, Andrew and Norton, Nancy J. and Nash, Jonathan D. and Musgrave, Ruth and Merchant, Lynne M. and Melet, Angelique V. and Mater, Benjamin and Legg, Sonya and Large, William G. and Kunze, Eric and Klymak, Jody M. and Jochum, Markus and Jayne, Steven R. and Hallberg, Robert W. and Griffies, Stephen M. and Diggs, Steve and Danabasoglu, Gokhan and Chassignet, Eric P. and Buijsman, Maarten C. and Bryan, Frank O. and Briegleb, Bruce P. and Barna, Andrew and Arbic, Brian K. and Ansong, Joseph K. and Alford, Matthew H.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {2429--2454}
}

@article{Lumpkin2007,
	title = {Global {Ocean} {Meridional} {Overturning}},
	volume = {37},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JPO3130.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO3130.1},
	abstract = {Abstract A decade-mean global ocean circulation is estimated using inverse techniques, incorporating air?sea fluxes of heat and freshwater, recent hydrographic sections, and direct current measurements. This information is used to determine mass, heat, freshwater, and other chemical transports, and to constrain boundary currents and dense overflows. The 18 boxes defined by these sections are divided into 45 isopycnal (neutral density) layers. Diapycnal transfers within the boxes are allowed, representing advective fluxes and mixing processes. Air?sea fluxes at the surface produce transfers between outcropping layers. The model obtains a global overturning circulation consistent with the various observations, revealing two global-scale meridional circulation cells: an upper cell, with sinking in the Arctic and subarctic regions and upwelling in the Southern Ocean, and a lower cell, with sinking around the Antarctic continent and abyssal upwelling mainly below the crests of the major bathymetric ridges. A decade-mean global ocean circulation is estimated using inverse techniques, incorporating air?sea fluxes of heat and freshwater, recent hydrographic sections, and direct current measurements. This information is used to determine mass, heat, freshwater, and other chemical transports, and to constrain boundary currents and dense overflows. The 18 boxes defined by these sections are divided into 45 isopycnal (neutral density) layers. Diapycnal transfers within the boxes are allowed, representing advective fluxes and mixing processes. Air?sea fluxes at the surface produce transfers between outcropping layers. The model obtains a global overturning circulation consistent with the various observations, revealing two global-scale meridional circulation cells: an upper cell, with sinking in the Arctic and subarctic regions and upwelling in the Southern Ocean, and a lower cell, with sinking around the Antarctic continent and abyssal upwelling mainly below the crests of the major bathymetric ridges.},
	number = {10},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Lumpkin, Rick and Speer, Kevin},
	year = {2007},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	keywords = {Air–sea interaction, Boundary currents, Meridional overturning circulation, Transport, Upwelling},
	pages = {2550--2562}
}

@article{khatiwala_age_2001,
	title = {Age tracers in an ocean {GCM}},
	volume = {48},
	issn = {09670637},
	doi = {10.1016/S0967-0637(00)00094-7},
	abstract = {Observations of transient tracers such as tritium and helium-3 (3He) are frequently combined to construct "age-like" quantities generally interpreted to represent time elapsed since a fluid parcel was last at the surface. In a turbulent ("diffusive") environment such as the ocean, we must regard the fluid parcel as being composed of material fluid elements that have spent different lengths of time since their last contact with the surface. Hence, they are characterized by an age spectrum or distribution of transit times. In this study we explore the concepts of tracer-derived "ages" and the transit-time probability density function (PDF) with the aim of improving our understanding of their interpretation. Using an ocean general circulation model, we illustrate the effect of mixing on tracer-derived "ages" within the Atlantic Ocean. The mixing biases such ages towards younger values with respect to the ideal or mean age of a water parcel. In the North Atlantic, this bias is particularly pronounced in the thermocline because of large vertical gradients in tracer concentration, and in the deep ocean, where the penetration of recently ventilated water creates large gradients along the isopycnal surfaces. In contrast, the effect of mixing appears to be relatively small in the subtropical subduction region. Calculations of the transit-time PDF in the ocean model show, however, that the mean age can potentially be very large because of contributions from long transit-time pathways, in spite of the fact that such pathways make up a small fraction of the fluid parcel. These results illustrate the key idea that tracer-derived ages are weighted towards the leading part of the transit-time distribution, while the ideal age is more sensitive to its "tail". These tracers are thus sensitive to and help constrain different time scales. We also find that the ideal age converges much more rapidly to the mean age compared with the first moment of the age spectrum, an important consideration in numerical studies. ?? 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.},
	number = {6},
	journal = {Deep-Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers},
	author = {Khatiwala, S. and Visbeck, M. and Schlosser, P.},
	year = {2001},
	note = {ISBN: 0967-0637},
	keywords = {Age spectrum, Dyes, Radioactive tracers, Residence time, Transit time, Water circulation},
	pages = {1423--1441}
}

@article{levitus_warming_2005,
	title = {Warming of the world ocean, 1955–2003},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0094-8276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2004GL021592},
	doi = {10.1029/2004GL021592},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-04-05},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Levitus, S. and Antonov, J. and Boyer, T.},
	year = {2005},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	pages = {L02604}
}

@article{ledwell_evidence_2000,
	title = {Evidence for enhanced mixing over rough topography in the abyssal ocean},
	volume = {403},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/35003164},
	doi = {10.1038/35003164},
	abstract = {Evidence for enhanced mixing over rough topography in the abyssal ocean},
	number = {6766},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Ledwell, J. R. and Montgomery, E. T. and Polzin, K. L. and St. Laurent, L. C. and Schmitt, R. W. and Toole, J. M.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2000},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {179--182}
}

@article{lacasce_linear_2010,
	title = {The linear models of the {ACC}},
	volume = {84},
	issn = {00796611},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2009.11.002},
	doi = {10.1016/j.pocean.2009.11.002},
	abstract = {Discussions of the dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) generally focus on eddies. The linear, analytical models are discussed only infrequently, and none of these models has gained widespread acceptance. These models nevertheless exist and exhibit interesting, and often realistic, features. We revisit those models, to understand their dynamics and to assess their relevance to the ACC. We focus specifically on the steady, linear, wind-driven models, and those with either a barotropic or equivalent barotropic vertical structure. The most important feature distinguishing them is their choice of geostrophic contours (f / H or the equivalent), whether closed or blocked. We first examine the flat bottom models. With closed geostrophic contours, the solutions have a flow which is primarily along the contours and a transport which is inversely proportional to the bottom drag coefficient. For realistic parameters, this transport is excessively large. Solution with blocked contours instead exhibit gyres, with cross-contour flow and western boundary currents. But they also have one or more circumpolar jets, which follow the geostrophic contours over most of the domain. In contrast to the closed contour models, these jets have a transport which asymptotes to a constant value when the bottom drag is vanishingly weak. We then discuss solutions with bottom topography, focusing in particular on the equivalent barotropic solution. The central parameter here is the vertical scale of the current, which determines the extent of the interaction with topography and the degree to which the geostrophic contours are blocked. The solutions with a shallow current are less affected by topography and have closed geostrophic contours and large transports. Solutions with too large vertical extent are overly-controlled by topography and exhibit only weak circumpolar transport. Solutions with an intermediate vertical scale have blocked contours and also reasonable circumpolar transport. Furthermore, these solutions exhibit strikingly realistic surface height fields. As in the flat bottom case, the solutions have an interior in Sverdrup balance and a circumpolar transport which asymptotes with vanishing bottom friction. We demonstrate that this transport can be estimated via a contour integral; the result agrees well with the full equivalent barotropic solution. Both are nevertheless roughly 50\% larger than observed in Drake Passage. However, the transport can be reduced to realistic values by adding lateral dissipation to the model. Thus the equivalent barotropic model is successful at capturing the steering of the ACC by topography, given the vertical scale of the current. However, it remains to understand what determines that scale. Thermohaline forcing and lateral mixing by eddies are likely to be important. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.},
	number = {3-4},
	journal = {Progress in Oceanography},
	author = {LaCasce, J. H. and Isachsen, P. E.},
	year = {2010},
	note = {Publisher: Elsevier Ltd},
	pages = {139--157}
}

@article{lacasce_float-derived_2014,
	title = {Float-{Derived} {Isopycnal} {Diffusivities} in the {DIMES} {Experiment}},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-13-0175.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-13-0175.1},
	abstract = {AbstractAs part of the Diapycnal and Isopycnal Mixing Experiment in the Southern Ocean (DIMES), 210 subsurface floats were deployed west of the Drake Passage on two targeted density surfaces. Absolute (single particle) diffusivities are calculated for the floats. The focus is on the meridional component, which is less affected by the mean shear. The diffusivities are estimated in several ways, including a novel method based on the probability density function of the meridional displacements. This allows the determination of the range of possible lateral diffusivities, as well as the period over which the spreading can be said to be diffusive. The method is applied to the float data and to synthetic trajectories generated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology General Circulation Model (MITgcm). Because of ballasting problems, many of the floats did not remain on their targeted density surface. However, the float temperature records suggest that most occupied a small range of densities, so the floa...},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {LaCasce, J. H. and Ferrari, R. and Marshall, J. and Tulloch, R. and Balwada, D. and Speer, K.},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {764--780}
}

@article{klocker_reconciling_2013,
	title = {Reconciling float-based and tracer-based estimates of lateral diffusivities},
	issn = {00222402},
	url = {http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/jmr/jmr/2012/00000070/00000004/art00001\npapers2://publication/uuid/DB34833C-BD4F-41A6-9E42-F6BB2D547FCE},
	doi = {10.1357/002224012805262743},
	abstract = {...  Reconciling  float - based and tracer - based  estimates of lateral  diffusivities . Authors: Klocker, Andreas; Ferrari, Raffaele; Lacasce, Joseph H.; Merrifield, Sophia T. Source: Journal of Marine Research, Volume 70, Number 4, July 2012 , pp. 569-602(34). ... {\textbackslash}n},
	journal = {Journal of Marine …},
	author = {Klocker, a and Ferrari, R and LaCasce, J H},
	year = {2013},
	pages = {1--34}
}

@article{khatiwala_ventilation_2012,
	title = {Ventilation of the deep ocean constrained with tracer observations and implications for radiocarbon estimates of ideal mean age},
	volume = {325-326},
	issn = {0012821X},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2012.01.038},
	doi = {10.1016/j.epsl.2012.01.038},
	abstract = {Ocean ventilation is the process that transports water and climatically important trace gases such as carbon dioxide from the surface mixed layer into the ocean interior. Quantifying the dominant source regions and time scales remains a major challenge in oceanography. A mathematically rigorous approach, that accounts for the multiplicity of transport pathways and transit times characteristic of an eddy-diffusive flow such as the ocean, is to quantify ventilation in terms of a probability distribution that partitions fluid parcels according to the time and location of their last surface contact. Here, we use globally gridded radiocarbon data in combination with other transient (CFCs) and hydrographic (temperature, salinity, phosphate, and oxygen) tracer data to estimate the joint distribution of age and surface origin of deep ocean waters. Our results show that {\textasciitilde}. 40\% and 26\% of the global ocean was last in contact with the Southern Ocean and North Atlantic, respectively. Some 80\% of the global deep ocean below 1500. m is ventilated from these high latitude regions. However, contrary to the classical description of the deep ocean as a roughly equal mixture of "northern" and "southern" source waters, we find a significantly higher contribution from the Southern Ocean relative to the North Atlantic. We estimate the mean transit time from the surface to the deep North Pacific at 1360??350. y, intermediate between two widely used radiocarbon-based estimates. To reconcile our estimate of the ideal mean age with ventilation age estimates based on radiocarbon, we apply the estimated distribution function to construct a 3-dimensional distribution of the water mass fraction-weighted surface "initial" radiocarbon concentration that can serve as an accurate reservoir age. Radiocarbon ages corrected for this initial reservoir age are found to be in good agreement (within 5\%) with our ideal age estimate, demonstrating that it is essential to take into account the spatially variable surface radiocarbon field when computing ventilation ages using radiocarbon. A wide spectrum of ages contributes to the mean age, providing evidence for the fundamentally eddy-diffusive nature of the large-scale general circulation of the ocean. ?? 2012 Elsevier B.V..},
	journal = {Earth and Planetary Science Letters},
	author = {Khatiwala, S. and Primeau, F. and Holzer, M.},
	year = {2012},
	note = {Publisher: Elsevier B.V.},
	keywords = {Green function, Ideal mean age, Inverse modeling, Ocean ventilation, Radiocarbon age, Tracers},
	pages = {116--125}
}

@article{jayne_impact_2009,
	title = {The {Impact} of {Abyssal} {Mixing} {Parameterizations} in an {Ocean} {General} {Circulation} {Model}},
	volume = {39},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JPO4085.1},
	abstract = {Abstract A parameterization of vertical diffusivity in ocean general circulation models has been implemented in the ocean model component of the Community Climate System Model (CCSM). The parameterization represents the dynamics of the mixing in the abyssal ocean arising from the breaking of internal waves generated by the tides forcing stratified flow over rough topography. This parameterization is explored over a range of parameters and compared to the more traditional ad hoc specification of the vertical diffusivity. Diapycnal mixing in the ocean is thought to be one of the primary controls on the meridional overturning circulation and the poleward heat transport by the ocean. When compared to the traditional approach with uniform mixing, the new mixing parameterization has a noticeable impact on the meridional overturning circulation; while the upper limb of the meridional overturning circulation appears to be only weakly impacted by the transition to the new parameterization, the deep meridional over...},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2018-09-28},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Jayne, Steven R.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {1756--1775}
}

@article{jagoutz_low-latitude_2016,
	title = {Low-latitude arc–continent collision as a driver for global cooling},
	volume = {113},
	issn = {0027-8424},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/content/113/18/4935.abstract},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1523667113},
	abstract = {New constraints on the tectonic evolution of the Neo-Tethys Ocean indicate that at ∼90–70 Ma and at ∼50–40 Ma, vast quantities of mafic and ultramafic rocks were emplaced at low latitude onto continental crust within the tropical humid belt. These emplacement events correspond temporally with, and are potential agents for, the global climatic cooling events that terminated the Cretaceous Thermal Maximum and the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum. We model the temporal effects of CO2 drawdown from the atmosphere due to chemical weathering of these obducted ophiolites, and of CO2 addition to the atmosphere from arc volcanism in the Neo-Tethys, between 100 and 40 Ma. Modeled variations in net CO2-drawdown rates are in excellent agreement with contemporaneous variation of ocean bottom water temperatures over this time interval, indicating that ophiolite emplacement may have played a major role in changing global climate. We demonstrate that both the lithology of the obducted rocks (mafic/ultramafic) and a tropical humid climate with high precipitation rate are needed to produce significant consumption of CO2. Based on these results, we suggest that the low-latitude closure of ocean basins along east–west trending plate boundaries may also have initiated other long-term global cooling events, such as Middle to Late Ordovician cooling and glaciation associated with the closure of the Iapetus Ocean.},
	number = {18},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Jagoutz, Oliver and Macdonald, Francis A and Royden, Leigh},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {4935--4940}
}

@article{ivey_density_2008,
	title = {Density {Stratification}, {Turbulence}, but {How} {Much} {Mixing}?},
	volume = {40},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.fluid.39.050905.110314},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.fluid.39.050905.110314},
	abstract = {We examine observations of turbulence in the geophysical environment, primarily from oceans but also from lakes, in light of theory and experimental studies undertaken in the laboratory and with numerical simulation. Our focus is on turbulence in density-stratified environments and on the irreversible fluxes of tracers that actively contribute to the density field. Our understanding to date has come from focusing on physical problems characterized by high Reynolds number flows with no spatial or temporal variability, and we examine the applicability of these results to the natural or geophysical-scale problems. We conclude that our sampling and interpretation of the results remain a first-order issue, and despite decades of ship-based observations we do not begin to approach a reliable sampling of the overall turbulent structure of the ocean interior.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-11-18},
	journal = {Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Ivey, G.N. and Winters, K.B. and Koseff, J.R.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2008},
	note = {Publisher: Annual Reviews},
	pages = {169--184}
}

@article{Iudicone2008,
	title = {The global conveyor belt from a {Southern} {Ocean} perspective},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2007JPO3525.1%5Cnpapers://b382215d-ac95-4dce-9bab-469b6d836056/Paper/p1433},
	doi = {10.1175/2007JPO3525.1},
	abstract = {Recent studies have proposed the Southern Ocean as the site of large water-mass transformations; other studies propose that this basin is among the main drivers for North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) circulation. A modeling contribution toward understanding the role of this basin in the global thermohaline circulation can thus be of interest. In particular, key pathways and transformations associated with the thermohaline circulation in the Southern Ocean of an ice-ocean coupled model have been identified here through the extensive use of quantitative Lagrangian diagnostics. The model Southern Ocean is characterized by a shallow overturning circulation transforming 20 Sv (1 Sv 10(6) m(3) s(-1)) of thermocline waters into mode waters and a deep overturning related to the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water. Mode and intermediate waters contribute to 80\% of the upper branch of the overturning in the Atlantic Ocean north of 30 S. A net upwelling of 11.5 Sv of Circumpolar Deep Waters is simulated in the Southern Ocean. Antarctic Bottom Water upwells into deep layers in the Pacific basin, forming Circumpolar Deep Water and subsurface thermocline water. The Southern Ocean is a powerful consumer of NADW: about 40\% of NADW net export was found to upwell in the Southern Ocean, and 40\% is transformed into Antarctic Bottom Water. The upwelling occurs south of the Polar Front and mainly in the Indian and Pacific Ocean sectors. The transformation of NADW to lighter water occurs in two steps: vertical mixing at the base of the mixed layer first decreases the salinity of the deep water upwelling south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, followed by heat input by air-sea and diffusive fluxes to complete the transformation to mode and intermediate waters.},
	number = {7},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Iudicone, D and Speich, S and Madec, G and Blanke, B},
	year = {2008},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	keywords = {Antarctic Intermediate Water, Atlantic, Circumpolar Current, Drake Passage, General-Circulation Model, Heat-Transport, Mass Transformation, Overturning Circulation, Thermohaline Circulation, World Ocean},
	pages = {1401--1425}
}

@article{imberger_boundary_1993,
	title = {Boundary mixing in stratified reservoirs},
	volume = {248},
	issn = {0022-1120},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112093000850},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112093000850},
	abstract = {{\textless}div class="abstract" data-abstract-type="normal"{\textgreater}{\textless}p{\textgreater}We consider the steady flow driven by turbulent mixing in a benthic boundary layer along a sloping boundary in the general case of a non-uniform background density gradient. The velocity and density fields are decomposed into barotropic and baroclinic components, and a solution is obtained by taking an expansion in the small parameter {\textless}span class='italic'{\textgreater}A{\textless}/span{\textgreater}, the aspect ratio of the boundary layer defined as the thickness divided by the alongslope length. The flow in the boundary layer is governed by a balance between alongslope baroclinic and barotropic density fluxes. A number of flow regimes can exist, and we show that in the regimes relevant to lakes and reservoirs, the barotropic flow is divergent and drives an exchange flow between the boundary layer and the interior. This leads to changes in the interior density gradient which are significant when compared to field observations.{\textless}/p{\textgreater}{\textless}/div{\textgreater}},
	number = {-1},
	urldate = {2018-11-05},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Imberger, J. and Ivey, G. N.},
	month = mar,
	year = {1993},
	note = {Publisher: Cambridge University Press},
	pages = {477}
}

@article{Huybers2005,
	title = {Obliquity pacing of the late {Pleistocene} glacial terminations},
	volume = {434},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature03401},
	doi = {10.1038/nature03401},
	number = {7032},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Huybers, Peter and Wunsch, Carl},
	month = mar,
	year = {2005},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {491--494}
}

@article{Huybers2009,
	title = {Feedback between deglaciation, volcanism, and atmospheric {CO2}},
	volume = {286},
	issn = {0012821X},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012821X09004166},
	doi = {10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.014},
	number = {3-4},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Earth and Planetary Science Letters},
	author = {Huybers, Peter and Langmuir, Charles},
	month = sep,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {479--491}
}

@article{huang_deep_2002,
	title = {Deep {Circulation} in the {South} {Atlantic} {Induced} by {Bottom}-{Intensified} {Mixing} over the {Midocean} {Ridge}*},
	volume = {32},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032<1150:DCITSA>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract The deep circulation in the South Atlantic is studied through numerical experiments, using an oceanic general circulation model based on z coordinates. The new feature of these numerical experiments is that diapycnal mixing is idealized as strong bottom-intensified mixing on both sides of the midocean ridge; elsewhere diapycnal mixing is set at a low background value. The bottom-intensified diapycnal mixing induces strong equatorward (poleward) flow along the western (eastern) slope of the midocean ridge. In addition, the strong vertical gradient of diapycnal mixing rate induces downwelling in the basin interior and intensifies the upwelling near the axis of the midocean ridge. The strong ridge-following currents induce anticlockwise circulation in both the eastern and western deep basins, and such circulation is opposite to the classical Stommel–Arons circulation. This study indicates that bottom topography, strong mixing over the midocean ridge, and strong localized mixing associated with overf...},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-09-28},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Huang, Rui Xin and Jin, Xiangze},
	month = apr,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {1150--1164}
}

@article{howell_north_2012,
	title = {On {North} {Pacific} circulation and associated marine debris concentration},
	volume = {65},
	issn = {0025326X},
	doi = {10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.04.034},
	abstract = {Marine debris in the oceanic realm is an ecological concern, and many forms of marine debris negatively affect marine life. Previous observations and modeling results suggest that marine debris occurs in greater concentrations within specific regions in the North Pacific Ocean, such as the Subtropical Convergence Zone and eastern and western " Garbage Patches" Here we review the major circulation patterns and oceanographic convergence zones in the North Pacific, and discuss logical mechanisms for regional marine debris concentration, transport, and retention. We also present examples of meso- and large-scale spatial variability in the North Pacific, and discuss their relationship to marine debris concentration. These include mesoscale features such as eddy fields in the Subtropical Frontal Zone and the Kuroshio Extension Recirculation Gyre, and interannual to decadal climate events such as El Ni??o and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation/North Pacific Gyre Oscillation. ?? 2011.},
	number = {1-3},
	journal = {Marine Pollution Bulletin},
	author = {Howell, Evan A. and Bograd, Steven J. and Morishige, Carey and Seki, Michael P. and Polovina, Jeffrey J.},
	year = {2012},
	pmid = {21592531},
	note = {ISBN: 1879-3363 (Electronic){\textbackslash}r0025-326X (Linking)},
	keywords = {Garbage patch, Kuroshio Extension Recirculation Gyre, Marine debris, North Pacific, Subtropical Convergence Zone},
	pages = {16--22}
}

@article{hosegood_restratification_2008,
	title = {Restratification of the {Surface} {Mixed} {Layer} with {Submesoscale} {Lateral} {Density} {Gradients}: {Diagnosing} the {Importance} of the {Horizontal} {Dimension}},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/2008JPO3843.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2008JPO3843.1},
	abstract = {Abstract A depth-cycling towed conductivity–temperature–depth (CTD) and vessel-mounted acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) were used to obtain four-dimensional measurements of the restratification of the surface mixed layer (SML) at a submesoscale lateral density gradient near the subtropical front. With the objective of studying the role of horizontal processes in restratification, the thermohaline and velocity fields were monitored for 33 h by 16 small-scale (≤15 km2) surveys centered on a drogued float. Daytime warming by insolation caused a unidirectional displacement of the initially vertical isopycnals toward increasing density. Across the entire SML (50-m vertical scale), solar insolation accounted for 60\% of observed restratification, but over 10-m scales, the percentage decreased with depth from 80\% at 25–35 m to ≤25\% at 55–65 m. Below 35 m, stratification was enhanced by the vertically sheared horizontal advection of the lateral density gradient due to a near-inertial wave of ∼100-m vertica...},
	number = {11},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Hosegood, P. J. and Gregg, M. C. and Alford, M. H.},
	year = {2008},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	keywords = {Field experiments, Mixed layer, Ocean models, Small scale processes, Subgrid-scale processes},
	pages = {2438--2460}
}

@article{holzer_diffusive_2006,
	title = {The diffusive ocean conveyor},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {00948276},
	doi = {10.1029/2006GL026232},
	abstract = {We use a novel path-density transport diagnostic to trace out the deep branch of the ocean conveyor in a global circulation model. Our results suggest that the majority of the world's deep water is not transported back to the surface along the current systems of the standard great ocean conveyor (GOC). Standard GOC routes are evident only for waters with interior residence times, τ, less than about a thousand years, accounting for less than a quarter of the ventilation-to-re-exposure flux. Waters with longer τ are spread across the deep oceans by the “diffusive conveyor” and, by τ ∼ 3000 years, organized into a characteristic deep-North-Pacific pattern that is dominated by eddy diffusion. The observed depletion of oxygen and 14C in the deep N Pacific is consistent with a diffusive conveyor and should not be interpreted as evidence of an advective terminus of the GOC deep branch.},
	number = {14},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Holzer, Mark and Primeau, Fran??ois W.},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {1--5}
}

@article{holzer_transit-time_2000,
	title = {Transit-{Time} and {Tracer}-{Age} {Distributions} in {Geophysical} {Flows}},
	volume = {57},
	issn = {0022-4928},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<3539:TTATAD>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract Transport in the atmosphere and in the ocean is the result of the complex action of time-dependent and often highly turbulent flow. A useful diagnostic that summarizes the rate at which fluid elements are transported from some region to a point (or the reverse) via a multiplicity of pathways and mechanisms is the probability density function (pdf) of transit times. The first moment of this pdf, often referred to as “mean age,” has become an important transport diagnostic commonly used by the observational community. This paper explores how to probe the flow with passive tracers to extract transit-time pdf’s. As a foundation, the literal “tracer age” is defined as the elapsed time since tracer was injected into the flow, and the corresponding tracer-age distribution, Z, as the fractional tracer mass in a given interval of tracer age. The distribution, Z, has concrete physical interpretation for arbitrary sources, but is only equivalent to a tracer-independent transit-time pdf of the flow in specia...},
	number = {21},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Holzer, Mark and Hall, Timothy M.},
	year = {2000},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-4928},
	pages = {3539--3558}
}

@article{hillenbrand_west_2017,
	title = {West {Antarctic} {Ice} {Sheet} retreat driven by {Holocene} warm water incursions},
	volume = {547},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature22995},
	doi = {10.1038/nature22995},
	language = {en},
	number = {7661},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Hillenbrand, Claus-Dieter and Smith, James A. and Hodell, David A. and Greaves, Mervyn and Poole, Christopher R. and Kender, Sev and Williams, Mark and Andersen, Thorbjørn Joest and Jernas, Patrycja E. and Elderfield, Henry and Klages, Johann P. and Roberts, Stephen J. and Gohl, Karsten and Larter, Robert D. and Kuhn, Gerhard},
	month = jul,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {43--48}
}

@article{heuze_southern_2013,
	title = {Southern {Ocean} bottom water characteristics in {CMIP5} models},
	volume = {40},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/grl.50287},
	doi = {10.1002/grl.50287},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Heuzé, Céline and Heywood, Karen J. and Stevens, David P. and Ridley, Jeff K.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2013},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	keywords = {Bottom Water, CMIP5, Southern Ocean, climate models},
	pages = {1409--1414}
}

@article{held_gap_2005,
	title = {The gap between simulation and understanding in climate modeling},
	volume = {86},
	issn = {00030007},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-86-11-1609},
	abstract = {The problem of creating truly convincing numerical simulations of our Earth's climate will remain a challenge for the next generation of climate scientists. Hopefully, the ever increasing power of computers will make this task somewhat less frustrating than it is at present. But, increasing computational power also raises issues as to how we would like to see climate modeling and the study of climate dynamics evolve in the twenty-first century. One of the key issues we will need to address is the widening gap between simulation and understanding.},
	number = {11},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Held, Isaac M.},
	year = {2005},
	pmid = {19000501},
	note = {ISBN: 0003-0007},
	pages = {1609--1614}
}

@article{hartmann_no_2002,
	title = {No {Evidence} for {Iris}},
	volume = {83},
	issn = {0003-0007, 1520-0477},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0477%282002%29083%3C0249%3ANEFI%3E2.3.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0477(2002)083<0249:NEFI>2.3.CO;2},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Hartmann, Dennis L. and Michelsen, Marc L.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {249--254}
}

@article{Hallberg2006,
	title = {The {Role} of {Eddies} in {Determining} the {Structure} and {Response} of the {Wind}-{Driven} {Southern} {Hemisphere} {Overturning}: {Results} from the {Modeling} {Eddies} in the {Southern} {Ocean} ({MESO}) {Project}},
	volume = {36},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO2980.1},
	abstract = {The Modeling Eddies in the Southern Ocean (MESO) project uses numerical sensitivity studies to examine the role played by Southern Ocean winds and eddies in determining the density structure of the global ocean and the magnitude and structure of the global overturning circulation. ...},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Hallberg, Robert and Gnanadesikan, Anand},
	year = {2006},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	pages = {2232--2252}
}

@article{haine_transit-time_2008,
	title = {On transit-time distributions in unsteady circulation models},
	volume = {21},
	issn = {14635003},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2007.11.004},
	abstract = {In a diffusive geophysical flow, there is not a single timescale or unique pathway for passive scalar transport from the reservoir's surface into the interior because of irreversible diffusive mixing processes. Instead, there is a range of pathways and hence a transit-time distribution (TTD) since last surface contact. We explore the issues that arise when considering TTDs for unsteady flows and discuss approaches to finding the TTD in numerical general circulation models. In particular, three complementary approaches are possible: First, the forward tracer equation can be used to simulate boundary impulse responses (BIRs). This approach is computationally efficient for the case where information on the TTD is needed at many field points or many field times. Second, the adjoint tracer equation can be used to find the TTD. This method is efficient when the TTD is required at a few field points and field times, but requires an adjoint tracer model. Third, BIR integrations can be used as statistical surrogates of TTDs, exploiting the fact that BIRs and TTDs have identical statistics due to a property of the underlying Green's function. If an estimate of the ensemble-mean TTD is required, to within an error on the order of the typical fluctuation amplitude, a single realization of the BIR serves as well as a single realization of the TTD. BIR and TTD ensembles give estimates of the ensemble-mean moments of the TTD to the same level of accuracy. Computing ensembles of BIRs instead of ensembles of TTDs is efficient for cases with few surface sources and few field times. Illustrations are presented for barotropic double-gyre circulations. © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.},
	number = {1-2},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Haine, T. W N and Zhang, H. and Waugh, D. W. and Holzer, M.},
	year = {2008},
	note = {ISBN: 1463-5003},
	keywords = {Circulation models, Tracers, Transit-time distribution},
	pages = {35--45}
}

@article{gruber_oceanic_2009,
	title = {Oceanic sources, sinks, and transport of atmospheric {CO2}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {08866236},
	doi = {10.1029/2008GB003349},
	abstract = {We synthesize estimates of the contemporary net air-sea CO2 flux on the basis of an inversion of interior ocean carbon observations using a suite of 10 ocean general circulation models (Mikaloff Fletcher et al., 2006, 2007) and compare them to estimates based on a new climatology of the air-sea difference of the partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) (Takahashi et al., 2008). These two independent flux estimates reveal a consistent description of the regional distribution of annual mean sources and sinks of atmospheric CO2 for the decade of the 1990s and the early 2000s with differences at the regional level of generally less than 0.1 Pg C a\&\#8722;1. This distribution is characterized by outgassing in the tropics, uptake in midlatitudes, and comparatively small fluxes in thehigh latitudes. Both estimates point toward a small (\&\#8764; \&\#8722;0.3 Pg C a\&\#8722;1) contemporary CO2 sink in the Southern Ocean (south of 44�S), a result of the near cancellation between a substantial outgassing of natural CO2 and a strong uptake of anthropogenic CO2. A notable exception in the generally good agreement between the two estimates exists within the Southern Ocean: the ocean inversion suggests a relatively uniform uptake, while the pCO2-based estimate suggests strong uptake in the region between 58�S and 44�S, and a source in the region south of 58�S. Globally and for a nominal period between 1995 and 2000, the contemporary net air-sea flux of CO2 is estimated to be \&\#8722;1.7 � 0.4 Pg C a\&\#8722;1 (inversion) and \&\#8722;1.4 � 0.7 Pg C a\&\#8722;1 (pCO2-climatology), respectively, consisting of an outgassing flux of river-derived carbon of \&\#8764;+0.5 Pg C a\&\#8722;1, and an uptake flux of anthropogenic carbon of \&\#8722;2.2 � 0.3 Pg C a\&\#8722;1 (inversion) and \&\#8722;1.9 � 0.7 Pg C a\&\#8722;1 (pCO2-climatology). The two flux estimates also imply a consistent description of the contemporary meridional transport of carbon with southward ocean transport throughout most of the Atlantic basin, and strong equatorward convergence in the Indo-Pacific basins. Both transport estimates suggest a small hemispheric asymmetry with a southward transport of between \&\#8722;0.2 and \&\#8722;0.3 Pg C a\&\#8722;1 across the equator. While the convergence of these two independent estimates is encouraging and suggests that it is now possible to provide relatively tight constraints for the net air-sea CO2 fluxes at the regional basis, both studies are limited by their lack of consideration of long-term changes in the ocean carbon cycle, such as the recent possible stalling in the expected growth of the Southern Ocean carbon sink.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Global Biogeochemical Cycles},
	author = {Gruber, Nicolas and Gloor, Manuel and Mikaloff Fletcher, Sara E. and Doney, Scott C. and Dutkiewicz, Stephanie and Follows, Michael J. and Gerber, Markus and Jacobson, Andrew R. and Joos, Fortunat and Lindsay, Keith and Menemenlis, Dimitris and Mouchet, Anne and Müller, Simon A. and Sarmiento, Jorge L. and Takahashi, Taro},
	year = {2009},
	note = {ISBN: 0886-6236},
	pages = {1--21}
}

@article{Griffies2015,
	title = {Impacts on ocean heat from transient mesoscale eddies in a hierarchy of climate models},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {08948755},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00353.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThe authors characterize impacts on heat in the ocean climate system from transient ocean mesoscale eddies. Their tool is a suite of centennial-scale 1990 radiatively forced numerical climate simulations from three GFDL coupled models comprising the Climate Model, version 2.0–Ocean (CM2-O), model suite. CM2-O models differ in their ocean resolution: CM2.6 uses a 0.1° ocean grid, CM2.5 uses an intermediate grid with 0.25° spacing, and CM2-1deg uses a nominal 1.0° grid.Analysis of the ocean heat budget reveals that mesoscale eddies act to transport heat upward in a manner that partially compensates (or offsets) for the downward heat transport from the time-mean currents. Stronger vertical eddy heat transport in CM2.6 relative to CM2.5 accounts for the significantly smaller temperature drift in CM2.6. The mesoscale eddy parameterization used in CM2-1deg also imparts an upward heat transport, yet it differs systematically from that found in CM2.6. This analysis points to the fundamental role that ocea...},
	number = {3},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Griffies, Stephen M. and Winton, Michael and Anderson, Whit G. and Benson, Rusty and Delworth, Thomas L. and Dufour, Carolina O. and Dunne, John P. and Goddard, Paul and Morrison, Adele K. and Rosati, Anthony and Wittenberg, Andrew T. and Yin, Jianjun and Zhang, Rong},
	year = {2015},
	note = {ISBN: 8610829952},
	pages = {952--977}
}

@article{gray_global_2014,
	title = {A {Global} {Analysis} of {Sverdrup} {Balance} {Using} {Absolute} {Geostrophic} {Velocities} from {Argo}},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-12-0206.1%5Cnhttp://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-12-0206.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-12-0206.1},
	abstract = {Using observations from the Argo array of profiling floats, the large-scale circulation of the upper 2000 decibars (db) of the global ocean is computed for the period from December 2004 to November 2010. The geostrophic velocity relative to a reference level of 900 db is estimated from temperature and salinity profiles, and the absolute geostrophic velocity at the reference level is estimated from the trajectory data provided by the floats. Combining the two gives the absolute geostrophic velocity on 29 pressure surfaces spanning the upper 2000 db of the global ocean. These velocities, together with satellite observations of wind stress, are then used to evaluate Sverdrup balance, the simple canonical theory relating meridional geostrophic transport to wind forcing. Observed transports agree well with predictions based on the wind field over large areas, primarily in the tropics and subtropics. Elsewhere, especially at higher latitudes and in boundary regions, Sverdrup balance does not accurately describe meridional geostrophic transports, possibly due to the increased importance of the barotropic flow, nonlinear dynamics, and topographic influence. Thus, while it provides an effective framework for understanding the zero-order wind-driven circulation in much of the global ocean, Sverdrup balance should not be regarded as axiomatic.},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Gray, Alison R and Riser, Stephen C},
	year = {2014},
	note = {ISBN: 0001433806},
	pages = {1213--1229}
}

@article{griffies_spurious_2000,
	title = {Spurious {Diapycnal} {Mixing} {Associated} with {Advection} in a \textit{z} -{Coordinate} {Ocean} {Model}},
	volume = {128},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0493%282000%29128%3C0538%3ASDMAWA%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0493(2000)128<0538:SDMAWA>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract This paper discusses spurious diapycnal mixing associated with the transport of density in a z-coordinate ocean model. A general method, based on the work of Winters and collaborators, is employed for empirically diagnosing an effective diapycnal diffusivity corresponding to any numerical transport process. This method is then used to quantify the spurious mixing engendered by various numerical representations of advection. Both coarse and fine resolution examples are provided that illustrate the importance of adequately resolving the admitted scales of motion in order to maintain a small amount of mixing consistent with that measured within the ocean’s pycnocline. Such resolution depends on details of the advection scheme, momentum and tracer dissipation, and grid resolution. Vertical transport processes, such as convective adjustment, act as yet another means to increase the spurious mixing introduced by dispersive errors from numerical advective fluxes.},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-10-20},
	journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	author = {Griffies, Stephen M. and Pacanowski, Ronald C. and Hallberg, Robert W.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2000},
	pages = {538--564}
}

@article{gri_gfdl_2014,
	title = {{GFDL} contributions to {CORE}-{Zika}},
	author = {Gri, Stephen},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {1--12}
}

@article{gnanadesikan_simple_1999,
	title = {A simple predictive model for the structure of the oceanic pycnocline},
	volume = {283},
	url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10092229},
	doi = {10.1126/SCIENCE.283.5410.2077},
	abstract = {A simple theory for the large-scale oceanic circulation is developed, relating pycnocline depth, Northern Hemisphere sinking, and low-latitude upwelling to pycnocline diffusivity and Southern Ocean winds and eddies. The results show that Southern Ocean processes help maintain the global ocean structure and that pycnocline diffusion controls low-latitude upwelling.},
	number = {5410},
	urldate = {2018-10-21},
	journal = {Science (New York, N.Y.)},
	author = {Gnanadesikan, Anand},
	month = mar,
	year = {1999},
	pmid = {10092229},
	note = {Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	pages = {2077--9}
}

@article{Girton2006,
	title = {Is the {Faroe} {Bank} {Channel} {Overflow} {Hydraulically} {Controlled}?},
	volume = {36},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO2969.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO2969.1},
	abstract = {Abstract The overflow of dense water from the Nordic Seas through the Faroe Bank Channel (FBC) has attributes suggesting hydraulic control—primarily an asymmetry across the sill reminiscent of flow over a dam. However, this aspect has never been confirmed by any quantitative measure, nor is the position of the control section known. This paper presents a comparison of several different techniques for assessing the hydraulic criticality of oceanic overflows applied to data from a set of velocity and hydrographic sections across the FBC. These include 1) the cross-stream variation in the local Froude number, including a modified form that accounts for stratification and vertical shear, 2) rotating hydraulic solutions using a constant potential vorticity layer in a channel of parabolic cross section, and 3) direct computation of shallow water wave speeds from the observed overflow structure. Though differences exist, the three methods give similar answers, suggesting that the FBC is indeed controlled, with a...},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2017-12-15},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Girton, James B. and Pratt, Lawrence J. and Sutherland, David A. and Price, James F. and Girton, James B. and Pratt, Lawrence J. and Sutherland, David A. and Price, James F.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2006},
	keywords = {Deep water, Dynamics, Water masses},
	pages = {2340--2349}
}

@article{gebbie_mean_2012,
	title = {The {Mean} {Age} of {Ocean} {Waters} {Inferred} from {Radiocarbon} {Observations}: {Sensitivity} to {Surface} {Sources} and {Accounting} for {Mixing} {Histories}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/JPO-D-11-043.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-11-043.1},
	abstract = {AbstractA number of previous observational studies have found that the waters of the deep Pacific Ocean have an age, or elapsed time since contact with the surface, of 700–1000 yr. Numerical models suggest ages twice as old. Here, the authors present an inverse framework to determine the mean age and its upper and lower bounds given Global Ocean Data Analysis Project (GLODAP) radiocarbon observations, and they show that the potential range of ages increases with the number of constituents or sources that are included in the analysis. The inversion requires decomposing the World Ocean into source waters, which is obtained here using the total matrix intercomparison (TMI) method at up to 2° × 2° horizontal resolution with 11 113 surface sources. The authors find that the North Pacific at 2500-m depth can be no younger than 1100 yr old, which is older than some previous observational estimates. Accounting for the broadness of surface regions where waters originate leads to a reservoir-age correction of almos...},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Gebbie, Geoffrey and Huybers, Peter},
	year = {2012},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	keywords = {Mass fluxes/transport, North Pacific Ocean, Ocean circulation, Optimization, Tracers, Variational analysis},
	pages = {291--305}
}

@article{gebbie_how_2011,
	title = {How is the ocean filled?},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {00948276},
	doi = {10.1029/2011GL046769},
	abstract = {The ocean surface rapidly exchanges heat, freshwater, and gases with the atmosphere, but once water sinks into the ocean interior, the inherited properties of seawater are closely conserved. Previous water-mass decompositions have described the oceanic interior as being filled by just a few different property combinations, or water masses. Here we apply a new inversion technique to climatological tracer distributions to find the pathways by which the ocean is filled from over 10,000 surface regions, based on the discretization of the ocean surface at 2 degrees by 2 degrees resolution. The volume of water originating from each surface location is quantified in a global framework, and can be summarized by the estimate that 15\% of the surface area fills 85\% of the ocean interior volume. Ranked from largest to smallest, the volume contributions scaled by surface area follow a power-law distribution with an exponent of -1.09 +/- 0.03 that appears indicative of the advective-diffusive filling characteristics of the ocean circulation, as demonstrated using a simple model. This work quantifies the connection between the surface and interior ocean, allowing insight into ocean composition, atmosphere-ocean interaction, and the transient response of the ocean to a changing climate. Citation: Gebbie, G., and P. Huybers (2011), How is the ocean filled?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L06604, doi: 10.1029/2011GL046769.},
	number = {6},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Gebbie, Geoffrey and Huybers, Peter},
	year = {2011},
	note = {ISBN: 0094-8276},
	keywords = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011GL046769, doi:10.102},
	pages = {1--5}
}

@article{gasparin_assessment_2015,
	title = {Assessment of the upper-ocean observing system in the equatorial {Pacific}: {The} role of argo in resolving intraseasonal to interannual variability},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {15200426},
	doi = {10.1175/JTECH-D-14-00218.1},
	number = {9},
	journal = {Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology},
	author = {Gasparin, Florent and Roemmich, Dean and Gilson, John and Cornuelle, Bruce},
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {ENSO, In situ oceanic observations, Oceanic, Profilers, Sampling},
	pages = {1668--1688}
}

@article{Garzoli2015,
	title = {The fate of the {Deep} {Western} {Boundary} {Current} in the {South} {Atlantic}},
	volume = {103},
	issn = {09670637},
	doi = {10.1016/j.dsr.2015.05.008},
	abstract = {The pathways of recently ventilated North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) are part of the lower limb of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). In the South Atlantic these pathways have been the subject of discussion for years, mostly due to the lack of observations. Knowledge of the pathways of the AMOC in the South Atlantic is a first order prerequisite for understanding the fluxes of climatically important properties. In this paper, historical and new observations, including hydrographic and oxygen sections, Argo data, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), are examined together with two different analyzes of the Ocean general circulation model For the Earth Simulator (OFES) to trace the pathway of the recently ventilated NADW through the South Atlantic. CLIVAR-era CFCs, oxygen and salinity clearly show that the strongest NADW pathway in the South Atlantic is along the western boundary (similar to the North Atlantic). In addition to the western boundary pathway, tracers show an eastward spreading of NADW between {\textasciitilde}17 and 25??S. Analyzed together with the results of earlier studies, the observations and model output presented here indicate that after crossing the equator, the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) transports water with the characteristics of NADW and a total volume transport of approximately 14Sv (1Sv=10$^{\textrm{6}}$m$^{\textrm{3}}$s$^{\textrm{-}}$$^{\textrm{1}}$). It crosses 5??S as a narrow western boundary current and becomes dominated by eddies further south. When this very energetic eddying flow reaches the Vit??ria-Trindade Ridge ({\textasciitilde}20??S), the flow follows two different pathways. The main portion of the NADW flow continues along the continental shelf of South America in the form of a strong reformed DWBC, while a smaller portion, about 22\% of the initial transport, flows towards the interior of the basin.},
	journal = {Deep-Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers},
	author = {Garzoli, Silvia L. and Dong, Shenfu and Fine, Rana and Meinen, Christopher S. and Perez, Renellys C. and Schmid, Claudia and Van Sebille, Erik and Yao, Qi},
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {Deep Western Boundary Current, Meridional Overturning Circulation, North Atlantic Deep Water, South Atlantic Circulation},
	pages = {125--136}
}

@article{Rahmstorf1998,
	title = {Simulation of modern and glacial climates with a coupled global model of intermediate complexity},
	volume = {391},
	issn = {00280836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/34839},
	doi = {10.1038/34839},
	number = {6665},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Rahmstorf, Stefan and Ganopolski, Andrey and Petoukhov, Vladimir and Claussen, Martin},
	month = jan,
	year = {1998},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {351--356}
}

@article{garrett_internal_2007,
	title = {Internal {Tide} {Generation} in the {Deep} {Ocean}},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {0066-4189, 1545-4479},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.fluid.39.050905.110227},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.fluid.39.050905.110227},
	abstract = {Internal tides are internal gravity waves generated in stratified waters by the interaction of barotropic tidal currents with variable bottom topography. They play a role in dissipating tidal energy and lead to mixing in the deep ocean. Key dimensionless parameters governing their generation include the tidal excursion compared with the scale of the topography, the bottom slope compared with the angle at which rays of internal waves of tidal frequency propagate, and the height of the topography compared with the depth of the ocean. Recent theoretical developments for parts of this parameter space particularly relevant to the deep ocean show that most of the energy flux is associated with low modes that propagate away from the generation region. For isolated features this energy flux is not strongly dependent on the bottom slope. Intense beams of internal tidal energy are expected near “critical slopes,” bottom slopes equal to the ray slope, and lead to local mixing.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Garrett, Chris and Kunze, Eric},
	month = jan,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {57--87}
}

@article{garrett_internal_nodate,
	title = {Internal {Waves} in the {Ocean}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Garrett, C and Munk, W},
	pages = {31}
}

@article{Ganopolski2010,
	title = {Simulation of the last glacial cycle with a coupled climate ice-sheet model of intermediate complexity},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {1814-9332},
	url = {http://www.clim-past.net/6/229/2010/},
	doi = {10.5194/cp-6-229-2010},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Climate of the Past},
	author = {Ganopolski, A. and Calov, R. and Claussen, M.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {229--244}
}

@article{froyland_how_2014,
	title = {How well-connected is the surface of the global ocean?},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {10541500},
	doi = {10.1063/1.4892530},
	abstract = {The Ekman dynamics of the ocean surface circulation is known to contain attracting regions such as the great oceanic gyres and the associated garbage patches. Less well-known are the extents of the basins of attractions of these regions and how strongly attracting they are. Understanding the shape and extent of the basins of attraction sheds light on the question of the strength of connectivity of different regions of the ocean, which helps in understanding the flow of buoyant material like plastic litter. Using short flow time trajectory data from a global ocean model, we create a Markov chain model of the surface ocean dynamics. The surface ocean is not a conservative dynamical system as water in the ocean follows three-dimensional pathways, with upwelling and downwelling in certain regions. Using our Markov chain model, we easily compute net surface upwelling and downwelling, and verify that it matches observed patterns of upwelling and downwelling in the real ocean. We analyze the Markov chain to determine multiple attracting regions. Finally, using an eigenvector approach, we (i) identify the five major ocean garbage patches, (ii) partition the ocean into basins of attraction for each of the garbage patches, and (iii) partition the ocean into regions that demonstrate transient dynamics modulo the attracting garbage patches.},
	number = {3},
	journal = {Chaos},
	author = {Froyland, Gary and Stuart, Robyn M. and van Sebille, Erik},
	year = {2014},
	pmid = {25273206}
}

@article{fox-kemper_parameterization_2008,
	title = {Parameterization of {Mixed} {Layer} {Eddies}. {Part} {I}: {Theory} and {Diagnosis}},
	volume = {38},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2007JPO3792.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2007JPO3792.1},
	abstract = {Abstract Ageostrophic baroclinic instabilities develop within the surface mixed layer of the ocean at horizontal fronts and efficiently restratify the upper ocean. In this paper a parameterization for the restratification driven by finite-amplitude baroclinic instabilities of the mixed layer is proposed in terms of an overturning streamfunction that tilts isopycnals from the vertical to the horizontal. The streamfunction is proportional to the product of the horizontal density gradient, the mixed layer depth squared, and the inertial period. Hence restratification proceeds faster at strong fronts in deep mixed layers with a weak latitude dependence. In this paper the parameterization is theoretically motivated, confirmed to perform well for a wide range of mixed layer depths, rotation rates, and vertical and horizontal stratifications. It is shown to be superior to alternative extant parameterizations of baroclinic instability for the problem of mixed layer restratification. Two companion papers discuss t...},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2018-10-15},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Fox-Kemper, Baylor and Ferrari, Raffaele and Hallberg, Robert},
	month = jun,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {1145--1165}
}

@article{forster_inference_2016,
	title = {Inference of {Climate} {Sensitivity} from {Analysis} of {Earth}'s {Energy} {Budget}},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {0084-6597},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-earth-060614-105156},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-earth-060614-105156},
	abstract = {Recent attempts to diagnose equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) from changes in Earth's energy budget point toward values at the low end of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report (AR5)'s likely range (1.5–4.5 K). These studies employ observations but still require an element of modeling to infer ECS. Their diagnosed effective ECS over the historical period of around 2 K holds up to scrutiny, but there is tentative evidence that this underestimates the true ECS from a doubling of carbon dioxide. Different choices of energy imbalance data explain most of the difference between published best estimates, and effective radiative forcing dominates the overall uncertainty. For decadal analyses the largest source of uncertainty comes from a poor understanding of the relationship between ECS and decadal feedback. Considerable progress could be made by diagnosing effective radiative forcing in models.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences},
	author = {Forster, Piers M.},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {aerosol, ocean heat uptake, radiative forcing, simple climate models, transient climate response},
	pages = {annurev--earth--060614--105156}
}

@article{ferrari_ocean_2009,
	title = {Ocean {Circulation} {Kinetic} {Energy}: {Reservoirs}, {Sources}, and {Sinks}},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {0066-4189},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.fluid.40.111406.102139},
	abstract = {The ocean circulation is a cause and consequence of fluid scale interactions ranging from millimeters to more than 10,000 km. Although the wind field produces a large energy input to the ocean, all but approximately 10\% appears to be dissipated within about 100 m of the sea surface, rendering observations of the energy divergence necessary to maintain the full water-column flow difficult. Attention thus shifts to the physically different kinetic energy (KE) reservoirs of the circulation and their maintenance, dissipation, and possible influence on the very small scales representing irreversible molecular mixing. Oceanic KE is dominated by the geostrophic eddy field, and depending on the vertical structure (barotropic versus low-mode baroclinic), direct and inverse energy cascades are possible. The pathways toward dissipation of the dominant geostrophic eddy KE depend crucially on the direction of the cascade but are difficult to quantify because of serious observational difficulties for wavelengths shorte...},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Ferrari, Raffaele and Wunsch, Carl},
	year = {2009},
	note = {ISBN: 0066-4189},
	keywords = {energy spectrum, geostrophic eddies, internal waves, turbulent cascade},
	pages = {253--282}
}

@article{ferrari_turning_2016,
	title = {Turning {Ocean} {Mixing} {Upside} {Down}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-15-0244.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-15-0244.1},
	abstract = {It is generally understood that small-scale mixing, such as is caused by breaking internal waves, drives upwelling of the densest ocean waters that sink to the ocean bottom at high latitudes. However, the observational evidence that the strong turbulent fluxes generated by small-scale mixing in the stratified ocean interior are more vigorous close to the ocean bottom boundary than above implies that small-scale mixing converts light waters into denser ones, thus driving a net sinking of abyssal waters. Using a combination of theoretical ideas and numerical models, it is argued that abyssal waters upwell along weakly stratified boundary layers, where small-scale mixing of density decreases to zero to satisfy the no density flux condition at the ocean bottom. The abyssal ocean meridional overturning circulation is the small residual of a large net sinking of waters, driven by small-scale mixing in the stratified interior above the bottom boundary layers, and a slightly larger net upwelling, driven by the decay of small-scale mixing in the boundary layers. The crucial importance of upwelling along boundary layers in closing the abyssal overturning circulation is the main finding of this work.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Ferrari, Raffaele and Mashayek, Ali and McDougall, Trevor J. and Nikurashin, Maxim and Campin, Jean-Michael},
	month = jul,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {2239--2261}
}

@article{ferrari_antarctic_2014,
	title = {Antarctic sea ice control on ocean circulation in present and glacial climates.},
	volume = {111},
	issn = {1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/content/111/24/8753},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1323922111},
	abstract = {In the modern climate, the ocean below 2 km is mainly filled by waters sinking into the abyss around Antarctica and in the North Atlantic. Paleoproxies indicate that waters of North Atlantic origin were instead absent below 2 km at the Last Glacial Maximum, resulting in an expansion of the volume occupied by Antarctic origin waters. In this study we show that this rearrangement of deep water masses is dynamically linked to the expansion of summer sea ice around Antarctica. A simple theory further suggests that these deep waters only came to the surface under sea ice, which insulated them from atmospheric forcing, and were weakly mixed with overlying waters, thus being able to store carbon for long times. This unappreciated link between the expansion of sea ice and the appearance of a voluminous and insulated water mass may help quantify the ocean's role in regulating atmospheric carbon dioxide on glacial-interglacial timescales. Previous studies pointed to many independent changes in ocean physics to account for the observed swings in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Here it is shown that many of these changes are dynamically linked and therefore must co-occur.},
	number = {24},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America},
	author = {Ferrari, Raffaele and Jansen, Malte F and Adkins, Jess F and Burke, Andrea and Stewart, Andrew L and Thompson, Andrew F},
	year = {2014},
	pmid = {24889624},
	keywords = {Algorithms, Antarctic Regions, Carbon Cycle, Climate, Computer Simulation, Ice Cover, Models, Oceanography, Oceans and Seas, Seawater, Southern Ocean, Theoretical, Time Factors, Water Movements, carbon cycle, ice age, ocean circulation, paleoceanography},
	pages = {8753--8758}
}

@article{t._n._emori_coupled_1999,
	title = {Coupled {Ocean}-{Atmosphere} {Model} {Experiments} of {Future} {Climate} {Change} with an {Explicit} {Representation} of {Sulfate} {Aerosol} {Scattering}},
	volume = {77},
	doi = {10.2151/jmsj1965.77.6_1299},
	abstract = {The transient response of a coupled ocean-atmosphere model to increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols, is investigated with an explicit representation of aerosol scattering. Experiments with an implicit representation of aerosol scattering, through the modification of surface albedo with the same parameter values as used in previous climate projections, are also conducted for comparison. The indirect effect of aerosol is yet to be included. As suggested by previous radiation computation studies, the estimated radiative forcing due to the direct effect of sulfate aerosol is significantly smaller with the explicit representation, than with the implicit one. A principal source of the overestimation by the implicit method is the neglect of the dependence of aerosol scattering on near-surface humidity. The projected surface air temperature change due to the addition of sulfate aerosols is considerably smaller in magnitude especially over dry regions with the explicit method, than with the implicit one. It is also suggested that the change in the Asian summer monsoon precipitation due to an increase in sulfate aerosols is particularly sensitive to the representation of sulfate aerosol scattering.},
	journal = {Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan},
	author = {T. N. Emori, S and Nozawa, Toru and Abe-Ouchi, Ayako and Numaguti, Atusi and Kimoto, Masahide and Nakajima, Teruyuki},
	month = dec,
	year = {1999},
	pages = {1299--1307}
}

@article{dufour_role_2015,
	title = {Role of {Mesoscale} {Eddies} in {Cross}-{Frontal} {Transport} of {Heat} and {Biogeochemical} {Tracers} in the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-14-0240.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-14-0240.1},
	abstract = {This study examines the role of processes transporting tracers across the Polar Front (PF) in the depth interval between the surface and major topographic sills, which this study refers to as the ‘‘PF core.’’ A preindustrial control simulation of an eddying climate model coupled to a biogeochemical model [GFDL Climate Model, version 2.6 (CM2.6)– simplified version of the Biogeochemistry with Light Iron Nutrients and Gas (miniBLING) 0.18 ocean model] is used to investigate the transport of heat, carbon, oxygen, and phosphate across the PF core, with a particular focus on the role of mesoscale eddies. The authors find that the total transport across the PF core results from a ubiquitous Ekman transport that drives the upwelled tracers to the north and a localized opposing eddy transport that induces tracer leakages to the south at major topographic obstacles. In the Ekman layer, the southward eddy transport only partially compensates the northward Ekman transport, while below the Ekman layer, the southward eddy transport dominates the total transport but remains much smaller in magnitude than the near-surface northward transport. Most of the southward branch of the total transport is achieved below the PF core, mainly through geostrophic currents. This study finds that the eddy-diffusive transport reinforces the southward eddy-advective transport for carbon and heat, and opposes it for oxygen and phosphate. Eddy-advective transport is likely to be the leading-order component of eddy-induced transport for all four tracers. However, eddy-diffusive transport may provide a significant contribution to the southward eddy heat transport due to strong along-isopycnal temperature gradients.},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Dufour, Carolina O. and Griffies, Stephen M. and de Souza, Gregory F. and Frenger, Ivy and Morrison, Adele K. and Palter, Jaime B. and Sarmiento, Jorge L. and Galbraith, Eric D. and Dunne, John P. and Anderson, Whit G. and Slater, Richard D.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {3057--3081}
}

@article{drijfhout_competition_2015,
	title = {Competition between global warming and an abrupt collapse of the {AMOC} in {Earth}’s energy imbalance},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {2045-2322},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/srep14877},
	doi = {10.1038/srep14877},
	abstract = {A collapse of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) leads to global cooling through fast feedbacks that selectively amplify the response in the Northern Hemisphere (NH). How such cooling competes with global warming has long been a topic for speculation, but was never addressed using a climate model. Here it is shown that global cooling due to a collapsing AMOC obliterates global warming for a period of 15–20 years. Thereafter, the global mean temperature trend is reversed and becomes similar to a simulation without an AMOC collapse. The resulting surface warming hiatus lasts for 40–50 years. Global warming and AMOC-induced NH cooling are governed by similar feedbacks, giving rise to a global net radiative imbalance of similar sign, although the former is associated with surface warming, the latter with cooling. Their footprints in outgoing longwave and absorbed shortwave radiation are very distinct, making attribution possible.},
	number = {October},
	journal = {Scientific Reports},
	author = {Drijfhout, Sybren},
	year = {2015},
	pmid = {26437599},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {14877}
}

@article{drijfhout_impact_2003,
	title = {Impact of {Eddy}-{Induced} {Transport} on the {Lagrangian} {Structure} of the {Upper} {Branch} of the {Thermohaline} {Circulation}},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282003%29033%3C2141%3AIOETOT%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2003)033<2141:IOETOT>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The effect of the eddy-induced transport (EIT) on the Lagrangian structure of the upper branch of the thermohaline circulation is investigated. The Lagrangian pathways, transport, and flow characteristics such as the large-scale chaotic mixing are examined in the OCCAM global, eddy-permitting ocean general circulation model. The motions of water masses are traced employing Lagrangian trajectories. These are computed using both the time-averaged Eulerian velocity and a velocity field that contains the EIT. In all aspects of the flow investigated the neglect of the EIT leads to severely biased results. Below the mixed layer divergences of eddy mass fluxes nearly cancel those of the mean flow. As a result, diapycnal motion is reduced by the EIT. In the surface layer, the EIT counteracts the Ekman flow. This compensation is found to hold both locally and nearly everywhere in the basin. Typically, the surface layer EIT reduces the Ekman transport by 50\%. Both reduced diapycnal motion and compensation of the Ekman flow prolong the circulation in wind-driven gyres and counteract dispersion of particles into the interior. Subsequently, the distribution of Lagrangian transport times becomes more peaked at shorter timescales and the transport times between sections decrease. At longer timescales the functional time dependence of the distribution is significantly changed. The spreading of particles and water masses without the EIT is governed by the ‘‘wrong’’ physics. The fact that the EIT makes the flow more aligned along isopycnals, and subsequently more quasi two-dimensional, implies reduced chaotic mixing.},
	language = {en},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Drijfhout, S. S. and de Vries, P. and Döös, K. and Coward, A. C.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2003},
	keywords = {GC Oceanography},
	pages = {2141--2155}
}

@article{Doos1995,
	title = {Interocean exchange of water masses},
	volume = {100},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/95JC00337},
	doi = {10.1029/95JC00337},
	abstract = {A new method for calculating water mass transport between different ocean basins from the velocity fields obtained by numerical models is presented. The method is applied to the velocity field of the Southern Ocean simulated by a primitive equation model (fine resolution Antarctic model). With this method it is possible to judge whether a water mass has been ventilated or not, to estimate how many times it has circled around Antarctica, and to calculate the time it has spent in the Southern Ocean. Calculations have also been undertaken revealing to what extent the changes of temperature, salinity, and density have been caused by mixing and by ventilation. Two major ways to redistribute the water through the Southern Ocean are identified. The first one redistributes 53\% of the water and involves an un ventilated direct exchange between the oceans, the second one redistributes 33\% by going around Antarctica. It is found that, on average, the water mass makes six circuits before the water is ventilated and subsequently driven to the north by the Ekman transport. A heat transport study is carried out for the Atlantic, showing that the northward heat transport into the Atlantic comes 85\% from the Indian Ocean and the rest from the Drake Passage.},
	number = {C7},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Döös, Kristofer},
	year = {1995},
	note = {ISBN: 0126413517},
	keywords = {doi:10.1029/9, doi:10.1029/95JC00337, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95JC00337},
	pages = {13499}
}

@article{Doos2008,
	title = {Lagrangian decomposition of the {Deacon} {Cell}},
	volume = {113},
	issn = {21699291},
	doi = {10.1029/2007JC004351},
	abstract = {The meridional overturning cells in the Southern Ocean are decomposed by Lagrangian tracing using velocity and density fields simulated with an ocean general circulation model. Particular emphasis is given to the Deacon Cell. The flow is divided into four major components: (1) water circling around Antarctica in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), (2) water leaving the ACC toward the north into the three world oceans, (3) water coming from the north and joining the ACC, mainly consisting of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), and (4) interocean exchange between the three world oceans without circling around Antarctica. The Deacon Cell has an amplitude of 20 Sv, of which 6 Sv can be explained by the the east-west tilt of the ACC, 5 Sv by the east-west tilt of the subtropical gyre, and the remaining 9 Sv by the differences of the slope and depth of the southward transport of NADW and its return flow as less dense water. The diabatic or cross-isopycnal Deacon Cell is only 2 Sv.},
	number = {7},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Döös, K. and Nycander, J. and Coward, A. C.},
	year = {2008},
	note = {ISBN: 0148-0227},
	pages = {1--13}
}

@article{dohan_monitoring_2010,
	title = {Monitoring {Ocean} {Currents} with {Satellite} {Sensors}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {10428275},
	url = {http://tos.org/oceanography/article/monitoring-ocean-currents-with-satellite-sensors},
	doi = {10.5670/oceanog.2010.08},
	abstract = {The interconnected ocean surface current system involves multiple scales, including basin-wide gyres, fast narrow boundary currents, eddies, and turbulence. To understand the full system requires measuring a range of motions, from thousands of kilometers to less than a meter, and time scales from those that are climate related (decades) to daily processes. Presently, satellite systems provide us with global and regional maps of the ocean surface's mesoscale motion (larger than 100 km). Surface currents are measured indirectly from satellite systems. One method involves using remotely sensed fields of sea surface height, surface winds, and sea surface temperature within a physical model to produce currents. Another involves determining surface velocity from paths of drifting surface buoys transmitted to satellite sensors. Additional methods include tracking of surface features and exploitation of the Doppler shift in radar fields. The challenges for progress include measuring small and fast processes, capturing the vertical variation, and overcoming sensor limitations near coasts. Here, we detail the challenges as well as upcoming missions and advancements in satellite oceanography that will change our understanding of surface currents in the next 10 years.},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Oceanography},
	author = {Dohan, Kathleen and Maximenko, Nikolai},
	year = {2010},
	pmid = {20133354},
	note = {ISBN: 1042-8275},
	pages = {94--103}
}

@article{devries_dynamically_2011,
	title = {Dynamically and {Observationally} {Constrained} {Estimates} of {Water}-{Mass} {Distributions} and {Ages} in the {Global} {Ocean}},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-10-05011.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-10-05011.1},
	abstract = {A data-constrained ocean circulation model is used to characterize the distribution of water masses and their ages in the global ocean. The model is constrained by the time-averaged temperature, salinity, and radiocarbon distributions in the ocean, as well as independent estimates of the mean sea surface height and sea surface heat and freshwater fluxes. The data-constrained model suggests that the interior ocean is ventilated primarily by water masses forming in the Southern Ocean. Southern Ocean waters, including those waters forming in the Antarctic and subantarctic regions, make up about 55\% of the interior ocean volume and an even larger percentage of the deep-ocean volume. In the deep North Pacific, the ratio of Southern Ocean to North Atlantic waters is almost 3:1. Approximately 65\% of interior ocean waters make first contact with the atmosphere in the Southern Ocean, further emphasizing the central role played by the Southern Ocean in the regulation of the earth’s climate. Results of the age analysis suggest that the mean ventilation age of deep waters is greater than 1000 yr throughout most of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, reaching a maximum of about 1400–1500 yr in the middepth North Pacific. The mean time for deep waters to be reexposed at the surface also reaches a maximum of about 1400–1500 yr in the deep North Pacific. Together these findings suggest that the deep North Pacific can be characterized as a ‘‘holding pen’’ of stagnant and recirculating waters.},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {DeVries, Tim and Primeau, François},
	month = dec,
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {Data assimilation, Large-scale motions, Ocean circulation, Optimization, Tracers, Water masses},
	pages = {2381--2401}
}

@article{dell_diffusive_2015,
	title = {Diffusive boundary layers over varying topography},
	volume = {769},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112015000889},
	doi = {10.1017/jfm.2015.88},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Dell, R. W. and Pratt, L. J.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {boundary-layer structure, geophysical and geological flows, ocean processes},
	pages = {635--653}
}

@article{delhez_toward_1999,
	title = {Toward a general theory of the age in ocean modelling},
	volume = {1},
	issn = {14635003},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1463500399000037},
	doi = {10.1016/S1463-5003(99)00003-7},
	abstract = {Seawater is a mixture of several constituents. The age of a parcel of a constituent is defined to be the time elapsed since the parcel under consideration left the region where its age is prescribed to be zero. Estimating the age is an invaluable tool for understanding complex flows and the functioning of the numerical models used for representing them. A general theory of the age is developed, according to which the age of a constituent of seawater is a time-dependent, pointwise quantity that may be obtained from the solution of two partial differential equations governing the evolution of the concentration of the constituent under study and an auxiliary variable called the ``age concentration''. It is seen that previous applications of the notion of age are in agreement with the present theory, or may be viewed as approximations deriving from this theory. A few particular problems are touched upon, including the estimation of the age of the water and the determination of the age with the help of radioactive tracers.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Delhez, Eric J.M. and Campin, Jean-Michel and Hirst, Anthony C. and Deleersnijder, Eric},
	year = {1999},
	note = {ISBN: 1463-5003},
	keywords = {Age, Age of seawater, Radioisotope, Tracer},
	pages = {17--27}
}

@article{deleersnijder_concept_2001,
	title = {The concept of age in marine modelling {I}. {Theory} and preliminary model results},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {09247963},
	doi = {10.1016/S0924-7963(01)00026-4},
	abstract = {The age of a particle of a seawater constituent is defined to be the time elapsed since the particle under consideration left the region, in which its age is prescribed to be zero. An Eulerian theory of the age is presented, in which advection, diffusion, production and destruction phenomena are properly accounted for. The key hypothesis is that the mean age of a set of particles is to be evaluated as the mass-weighted average of the ages of the particles under study. The basic variable is the concentration distribution function, representing, at a given time and location, the distribution over the age of the concentration of the constituent being considered. This function satisfies a partial differential equation, which, upon appropriate integration over the age, yields the equations, in flux form, governing the evolution of the concentration and the age concentration. The ratio of the latter variable to the former is the mean age. Further theoretical developments are presented, including a thought experiment showing that mixing processes cause the ages of various constituents to be different from each other. The potential of the age as a tool for understanding complex marine flows is briefly demonstrated by analysing the results of two numerical models. The ages of a passive tracer, a radioactive tracer and the water are computed, along with a suitably defined radio-age. First, the fate of tracers released into the English Channel at La Hague is simulated. Then, ages are computed in the World Ocean as a measure of the time that has elapsed since leaving the surface layers. A theorem is demonstrated, which specifies that the age of the radioactive tracer must be smaller than the relevant radio-age, the latter being smaller than the age of the passive tracer, which, under appropriate hypotheses, can be seen to be equivalent to the age of the water. These inequalities seem to be remarkably robust, since they are found to hold valid in most of the numerical and analytical results examined in the present study. On the other hand, a dimensionless number is highlighted, which is believed to play an important role in the scaling of the differences between ages. ?? 2001 Elsevier Science B.V.},
	number = {3-4},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Systems},
	author = {Deleersnijder, Eric and Campin, Jean Michel and Delhez, E. J M},
	year = {2001},
	note = {ISBN: 0924-7963},
	keywords = {Age, Age of seawater, English Channel, North Sea, Radioisotope, Tracer, World Ocean},
	pages = {229--267}
}

@article{deconto_contribution_2016,
	title = {Contribution of {Antarctica} to past and future sea-level rise},
	volume = {531},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature17145},
	doi = {10.1038/nature17145},
	language = {en},
	number = {7596},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {DeConto, Robert M. and Pollard, David},
	month = mar,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {591--597}
}

@article{lavergne_cessation_2014,
	title = {Cessation of deep convection in the open {Southern} {Ocean} under anthropogenic climate change},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {1758-678X},
	doi = {10.1038/NCLIMATE2132},
	abstract = {In 1974, newly available satellite observations unveiled the presence of a giant ice-free area, or polynya, within the Antarctic ice pack of theWeddell Sea, which persisted during the two following winters1 . Subsequent research showed that deep convective overturning had opened a conduit between the surface and the abyssal ocean, and had maintained the polynya through the massive release of heat from the deep sea2,3 . Although the polynya has aroused continued interest1–9 , the presence of a fresh surface layer has prevented the recurrence of deep convection there since 19768 , and it is now largely viewed as a naturally rare event10 . Here, we present a new analysis of historical observations and model simulations that suggest deep convection in theWeddell Sea was more active in the past, and has been weakened by anthropogenic forcing. The observations show that surface freshening of the southern polar ocean since the 1950s has considerably enhanced the salinity stratification. Meanwhile, among the present generation of global climate models, deep convection is common in the Southern Ocean under pre-industrial conditions, but weakens and ceases under a climate change scenario owing to surface freshening.Adecline of open-ocean convection would reduce the production rate of Antarctic Bottom Waters, with important implications for ocean heat and carbon storage, and may have played a role in recent Antarctic climate change. Antarctic},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Lavergne, Casimir De and Palter, Jaime B and Galbraith, Eric D and Bernardello, Ra and Marinov, Irina},
	year = {2014},
	note = {ISBN: 1758-678X},
	pages = {0--4}
}

@article{de_lavergne_impact_2016,
	title = {The {Impact} of a {Variable} {Mixing} {Efficiency} on the {Abyssal} {Overturning}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-14-0259.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-14-0259.1},
	abstract = {In studies of ocean mixing, it is generally assumed that small-scale turbulent overturns lose 15\%–20\% of their energy in eroding the background stratification. Accumulating evidence that this energy fraction, or mixing efficiency Rf, significantly varies depending on flow properties challenges this assumption, however. Here, the authors examine the implications of a varying mixing efficiency for ocean energetics and deep-water mass transformation. Combining current parameterizations of internal wave-driven mixing with a recent model expressing Rf as a function of a turbulence intensity parameter Reb 5 «n /nN2, the ratio of dissipation «n to stratification N2 and molecular viscosity n, it is shown that accounting for reduced mixing efficiencies in regions of weak stratification or energetic turbulence (high Reb) strongly limits the ability of breaking internal waves to supply oceanic potential energy and drive abyssal upwelling. Moving from a fixed Rf 5 1/6 to a variable efficiency Rf(Reb) causes Antarctic Bottom Water upwelling induced by locally dissipating internal tides and lee waves to fall from 9 to 4 Sverdrups (Sv; 1 Sv [ 106 m3 s21) and the corresponding potential energy source to plunge from 97 to 44 GW. When adding the contribution of remotely dissipating internal tides under idealized distributions of energy dissipation, the total rate of Antarctic Bottom Water upwelling is reduced by about a factor of 2, reaching 5–15 Sv, compared to 10–33 Sv for a fixed efficiency. The results suggest that distributed mixing, overflow-related boundary processes, and geothermal heating are more effective in consuming abyssal waters than topographically enhanced mixing by breaking internal waves. These calculations also point to the importance of accurately constraining Rf (Reb) and including the effect in ocean models.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {de Lavergne, Casimir and Madec, Gurvan and Le Sommer, Julien and Nurser, A. J. George and Naveira Garabato, Alberto C.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {663--681}
}

@article{de_lavergne_consumption_2016,
	title = {On the {Consumption} of {Antarctic} {Bottom} {Water} in the {Abyssal} {Ocean}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-14-0201.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-14-0201.1},
	abstract = {The abyssal ocean is primarily filled by cold, dense waters formed around Antarctica and collectively referred to as Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW). At steady state, AABW must be consumed in the ocean interior at the same rate it is produced, but how and where this consumption is achieved remains poorly understood. Here, estimates of abyssal water mass transformation by geothermal heating and parameterized internal wave–driven mixing are presented. This study uses maps of the energy input to internal waves by tidal and geostrophic motions interacting with topography combined with assumptions about the distribution of energy dissipation to evaluate dianeutral transports induced by breaking internal tides and lee waves. Geothermal transformation is assessed based on a map of geothermal heat fluxes. Under the hypotheses underlying the constructed climatologies of buoyancy fluxes, the authors calculate that locally dissipating internal tides and geothermal heating contribute, respectively, about 8 and 5 Sverdrups (Sv; 1 Sv [ 106 m3 s21) of AABW consumption (upwelling), mostly north of 308S. In contrast, parameterized lee wave–driven mixing causes significant transformation only in the Southern Ocean, where it forms about 3 Sv of AABW, decreasing the mean density but enhancing the northward flow of abyssal waters. The possible role of remotely dissipating internal tides in complementing AABW consumption is explored based on idealized distributions of mixing energy. Depending mostly on the chosen vertical structure, such mixing could drive 1 to 28 Sv of additional AABW upwelling, highlighting the need to better constrain the spatial distribution of remote dissipation. Though they carry large uncertainties, these climatological transformation estimates shed light on the qualitative functioning and key unknowns of the diabatic overturning.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {de Lavergne, Casimir and Madec, Gurvan and Le Sommer, Julien and Nurser, A. J. George and Naveira Garabato, Alberto C.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {Abyssal circulation, Circulation/Dynamics, Diapycnal mixing, Internal waves, Upwelling/downwelling},
	pages = {635--661}
}

@article{de_lavergne_abyssal_2017,
	title = {Abyssal ocean overturning shaped by seafloor distribution},
	volume = {551},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature24472},
	doi = {10.1038/nature24472},
	abstract = {Deep ocean circulation, below about 2.5 kilometres (km), is a key driver of oceanic uptake or release of heat and carbon. A few regions, such as the North Atlantic, are known sources of deep water formation, but the processes that control the movement of deep waters remain as opaque as the abyss itself. Now, Casimir de Lavergne and colleagues show that the characteristic flow patterns—northward below 4 km depth and southward between 2.5 km and 4 kmare tied to the distribution of the ocean floor at certain depths. Essentially, the bathymetry of the ocean, rather than extrinsic properties such as climate gradients, drives key features of deep ocean circulation. The authors incorporate an analysis of radiocarbon into their model that reveals a shadow layer between the surface and deep ocean, with stagnant properties and high potential for long-term carbon storage.},
	number = {7679},
	urldate = {2018-05-09},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {de Lavergne, C. and Madec, G. and Roquet, F. and Holmes, R. M. and McDougall, T. J.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2017},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	keywords = {Palaeoceanography, Physical oceanography},
	pages = {181--186}
}

@article{collins_impact_2010,
	title = {The impact of global warming on the tropical {Pacific} {Ocean} and {El} {Nino}},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {1752-0894},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo868},
	doi = {10.1038/NGEO868},
	abstract = {The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a naturally occurring fluctuation that originates in the tropical Pacific region and affects ecosystems, agriculture, freshwater supplies, hurricanes and other severe weather events worldwide. Under the influence of global warming, the mean climate of the Pacific region will probably undergo significant changes. The tropical easterly trade winds are expected to weaken; surface ocean temperatures are expected to warm fastest near the equator and more slowly farther away; the equatorial thermocline that marks the transition between the wind-mixed upper ocean and deeper layers is expected to shoal; and the temperature gradients across the thermocline are expected to become steeper. Year-to-year ENSO variability is controlled by a delicate balance of amplifying and damping feedbacks, and one or more of the physical processes that are responsible for determining the characteristics of ENSO will probably be modified by climate change. Therefore, despite considerable progress in our understanding of the impact of climate change on many of the processes that contribute to El Niño variability, it is not yet possible to say whether ENSO activity will be enhanced or damped, or if the frequency of events will change.},
	number = {6},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Collins, Mat and An, Soon-Il and Cai, Wenju and Ganachaud, Alexandre and Guilyardi, Eric and Jin, Fei-Fei and Jochum, Markus and Lengaigne, Matthieu and Power, Scott and Timmermann, Axel and Vecchi, Gabe and Wittenberg, Andrew},
	year = {2010},
	note = {ISBN: 1752-0894},
	pages = {391--397}
}

@article{christy_time_2016,
	title = {Time series construction of summer surface temperatures for {Alabama}, 1883-2014, and comparisons with tropospheric temperature and climate model simulations},
	volume = {55},
	issn = {15588432},
	doi = {10.1175/JAMC-D-15-0287.1},
	abstract = {Three time series of average summer [June–August (JJA)] daily maximum temperature (TMax) are developed for three interior regions of Alabama from stations with varying periods of record and unknown inhomogeneities. The time frame is 1883–2014. Inhomogeneities for each station’s time series are determined from pairwise comparisons with no use of station metadata other than location. The time series for the three adjoining regions are constructed separately and are then combined as a whole assuming trends over 132 yr will have little spatial variation either intraregionally or interregionally for these spatial scales. Varying the parameters of the construction methodology creates 333 time series with a central trend value based on the largest group of stations of −0.07°C decade−1 with a best-guess estimate of measurement uncertainty from −0.12° to −0.02°C decade−1. This best-guess result is insignificantly different (0.01°C decade−1) from a similar regional calculation using NOAA’s divisional dataset based on daily data from the Global Historical Climatology Network (nClimDiv) beginning in 1895. Summer TMax is a better proxy, when compared with daily minimum temperature and thus daily average temperature, for the deeper tropospheric temperature (where the enhanced greenhouse signal is maximized) as a result of afternoon convective mixing. Thus, TMax more closely represents a critical climate parameter: atmospheric heat content. Comparison between JJA TMax and deep tropospheric temperature anomalies indicates modest agreement (r2 = 0.51) for interior Alabama while agreement for the conterminous United States as given by TMax from the nClimDiv dataset is much better (r2 = 0.86). Seventy-seven CMIP5 climate model runs are examined for Alabama and indicate no skill at replicating long-term temperature and precipitation changes since 1895.},
	number = {3},
	journal = {Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology},
	author = {Christy, John R. and McNider, Richard T.},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {Climate records, Model evaluation/performance, Surface observations, Surface temperature},
	pages = {811--826}
}

@article{callies_seasonality_2015,
	title = {Seasonality in submesoscale turbulence.},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/150421/ncomms7862/full/ncomms7862.html},
	doi = {10.1038/ncomms7862},
	abstract = {Although the strongest ocean surface currents occur at horizontal scales of order 100 km, recent numerical simulations suggest that flows smaller than these mesoscale eddies can achieve important vertical transports in the upper ocean. These submesoscale flows, 1-100 km in horizontal extent, take heat and atmospheric gases down into the interior ocean, accelerating air-sea fluxes, and bring deep nutrients up into the sunlit surface layer, fueling primary production. Here we present observational evidence that submesoscale flows undergo a seasonal cycle in the surface mixed layer: they are much stronger in winter than in summer. Submesoscale flows are energized by baroclinic instabilities that develop around geostrophic eddies in the deep winter mixed layer at a horizontal scale of order 1-10 km. Flows larger than this instability scale are energized by turbulent scale interactions. Enhanced submesoscale activity in the winter mixed layer is expected to achieve efficient exchanges with the permanent thermocline below.},
	journal = {Nature communications},
	author = {Callies, Jörn and Ferrari, Raffaele and Klymak, Jody M and Gula, Jonathan},
	year = {2015},
	pmid = {25897832},
	pages = {6862}
}

@article{caldwell_turbulence_1995,
	title = {Turbulence and mixing in the ocean},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {87551209},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/95RG00123},
	doi = {10.1029/95RG00123},
	language = {en},
	number = {S2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Caldwell, Douglas R. and Mourn, James N.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1995},
	pages = {1385--1394}
}

@article{caesar_observed_2018,
	title = {Observed fingerprint of a weakening {Atlantic} {Ocean} overturning circulation},
	volume = {556},
	copyright = {2018 Macmillan Publishers Ltd., part of Springer Nature},
	issn = {1476-4687},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0006-5},
	doi = {10.1038/s41586-018-0006-5},
	abstract = {A characteristic ‘fingerprint’ of sea-surface temperatures suggests that the Atlantic overturning circulation has slowed substantially since the mid-twentieth century, as predicted by climate models in response to increasing carbon dioxide emissions.},
	language = {En},
	number = {7700},
	urldate = {2019-03-26},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Caesar, L. and Rahmstorf, S. and Robinson, A. and Feulner, G. and Saba, V.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {191}
}

@article{burls_simulating_2014,
	title = {Simulating {Pliocene} warmth and a permanent {El} {Niño}-like state: {The} role of cloud albedo},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {19449186},
	doi = {10.1002/2014PA002644},
	abstract = {Available evidence suggests that during the early Pliocene (4-5 Ma) the mean east-west sea surface temperature (SST) gradient in the equatorial Pacific Ocean was significantly smaller than today, possibly reaching only 1-2C. The meridional SST gradients were also substantially weaker, implying an expanded ocean warm pool in low latitudes. Subsequent global cooling led to the establishment of the stronger, modern temperature gradients. Given our understanding of the physical processes that maintain the present-day cold tongue in the east, warm pool in the west and hence sharp temperature contrasts, determining the key factors that maintained early Pliocene climate still presents a challenge for climate theories and models. This study demonstrates how different cloud properties could provide a solution. We show that a reduction in the meridional gradient in cloud albedo can sustain reduced meridional and zonal SST gradients, an expanded warm pool and warmer thermal stratification in the ocean, and weaker Hadley and Walker circulations in the atmosphere. Having conducted a range of hypothetical modified cloud albedo experiments, we arrive at our Pliocene simulation, which shows good agreement with proxy SST data from major equatorial and coastal upwelling regions, the tropical warm pool, middle and high latitudes, and available subsurface temperature data. As suggested by the observations, the simulated Pliocene-like climate sustains a robust El Niño-Southern Oscillation despite the reduced mean east-west SST gradient. Our results demonstrate that cloud albedo changes may be a critical element of Pliocene climate and that simulating the meridional SST gradient correctly is central to replicating the geographical patterns of Pliocene warmth. Key PointsCloud albedo changes may be a critical element of Pliocene climateMeridional SST gradient is a key in replicating the patterns of Pliocene warmthA robust ENSO despite the reduced mean east-west SST gradient},
	number = {10},
	journal = {Paleoceanography},
	author = {Burls, N. J. and Fedorov, A. V.},
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {Pliocene climate, cloud albedo},
	pages = {893--910}
}

@article{blanke_global_2002,
	title = {A global diagnostic of interior ocean ventilation},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0094-8276},
	url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2001GL013727/full},
	doi = {10.1029/2001GL013727},
	abstract = {Ventilation is the process by which water is transferred from the surface mixed layer to the interior ocean. Ventilation anomalies as the result of climate variability may impact the atmosphere in remote regions where the flow returns to the mixed layer. From the Lagrangian analysis of monthly-mean ocean fields of a numerical model constrained by observed climatologies, we show that 324 Sv of mixed layer water travel throughout the interior ocean for periods longer than 12 months, leading to an average volume replacement time of roughly 125 yr. We evaluate the connections established on a global scale, with an appropriate mapping of the ventilation and corresponding obduction regions, and highlight the role of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current as a main receptacle of the water masses formed throughout the world ocean.},
	number = {8},
	journal = {Geophysical research …},
	author = {Blanke, Bruno and Speich, Sabrina},
	year = {2002},
	note = {ISBN: 0094-8276},
	pages = {1--4}
}

@article{blanke_kinematics_1997,
	title = {Kinematics of the {Pacific} {Equatorial} {Undercurrent}: {An} {Eulerian} and {Lagrangian} {Approach} from {GCM} {Results}},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	shorttitle = {Kinematics of the {Pacific} {Equatorial} {Undercurrent}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281997%29027%3C1038%3AKOTPEU%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1997)027<1038:KOTPEU>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Three-dimensional monthly velocity fields from an ocean general circulation model are used to study the annual mean mass balance of the Pacific Equatorial Undercurrent (EUC). Eulerian diagnostics are used to evaluate the various meridional, vertical, and zonal mass fluxes related to the EUC. There are several distinct regimes along the equator, showing clear asymmetries between the western and eastern parts of the basin, and between the northern and southern edges of the EUC. Meridional fluxes are decomposed into pure Ekman divergence and geostrophic convergence, and it is shown that the asymmetries are mainly related to the spatial structure of the Ekman divergence, and thus to that of the trade winds. Lagrangian calculations are used to evaluate accurately the mass transfers between various sections of the EUC and between the EUC domain and the Tropics. The authors show that geostrophic convergence only ventilates the upper layers of the EUC and that the EUC really is a tongue of water flowing from the western Pacific to the Galapagos Islands and beyond. Finally, Lagrangian integrations extended to extratropical regions show that the EUC contributes to an exchange of water between the southern and northern Pacific (and the Indian Ocean through the Indonesian Throughflow): The equatorial zonal pressure gradient draws water from the western boundary currents that originate mostly in the south subtropical gyre. The poleward Ekman divergence associated with the equatorial upwelling distributes EUC water over the surface, with significant recirculation within the EUC (more than 15\% of the total transport at 150ЊW).},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Blanke, Bruno and Raynaud, Stéphane},
	month = jun,
	year = {1997},
	pages = {1038--1053}
}

@article{bitz_antarctic_2012,
	title = {Antarctic climate response to stratospheric ozone depletion in a fine resolution ocean climate model},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {00948276},
	doi = {10.1029/2012GL053393},
	abstract = {We investigate the impact of stratospheric ozone depletion on Antarctic{\textbackslash}nclimate, paying particular attention to the question of whether eddy{\textbackslash}nparameterizations in the ocean fundamentally alter the results. This{\textbackslash}nis accomplished by contrasting two versions of the Community Climate{\textbackslash}nSystem Model (version 3.5), one at 0.1� ocean and sea ice resolution{\textbackslash}nand the other at 1� with parameterized ocean eddies. At both resolutions,{\textbackslash}npairs of integrations are performed: one with high (1960) and one{\textbackslash}nwith low (2000) ozone levels. We find that the effect of ozone depletion{\textbackslash}nis to warm the surface and the ocean to a depth of 1000 m and to{\textbackslash}nsignificantly reduce the sea ice extent. While the ocean warming{\textbackslash}nis somewhat weaker when the eddies are resolved, the total loss of{\textbackslash}nsea ice area is roughly the same in the fine and coarse resolution{\textbackslash}ncases.},
	number = {20},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Bitz, C. M. and Polvani, L. M.},
	year = {2012},
	note = {ISBN: 0094-8276},
	keywords = {Antarctic climate, ocean eddies, ozone depletion, sea ice change},
	pages = {1--5}
}

@article{ballarotta_residual_2013,
	title = {The residual circulation of the {Southern} {Ocean}: {Which} spatio-temporal scales are needed?},
	volume = {64},
	issn = {14635003},
	shorttitle = {The residual circulation of the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1463500313000073},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2013.01.005},
	abstract = {The Southern Ocean circulation consists of a complicated mixture of processes and phenomena that arise at different time and spatial scales which need to be parametrized in the state-of-the-art climate models. The temporal and spatial scales that give rise to the present-day residual mean circulation are here investigated by calculating the Meridional Overturning Circulation (MOC) in density coordinates from an eddy-permitting global model. The region sensitive to the temporal decomposition is located between 38°S and 63°S, associated with the eddy-induced transport. The ‘‘Bolus’’ component of the residual circulation corresponds to the eddy-induced transport. It is dominated by timescales between 1 month and 1 year. The temporal behavior of the transient eddies is examined in splitting the ‘‘Bolus’’ component into a ‘‘Seasonal’’, an ‘‘Eddy’’ and an ‘‘Inter-monthly’’ component, respectively representing the correlation between density and velocity fluctuations due to the average seasonal cycle, due to mesoscale eddies and due to large-scale motion on timescales longer than one month that is not due to the seasonal cycle. The ‘‘Seasonal’’ bolus cell is important at all latitudes near the surface. The ‘‘Eddy’’ bolus cell is dominant in the thermocline between 50°S and 35°S and over the whole ocean depth at the latitude of the Drake Passage. The ‘‘Inter-monthly’’ bolus cell is important in all density classes and is maximal in the Brazil–Malvinas Confluence and the Agulhas Return Current. The spatial decomposition indicates that a large part of the Eulerian mean circulation is recovered for spatial scales larger than 11.25°, implying that small-scale meanders in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), near the Subantarctic and Polar Fronts, and near the Subtropical Front are important in the compensation of the Eulerian mean flow.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Ballarotta, Maxime and Drijfhout, Sybren and Kuhlbrodt, Till and Döös, Kristofer},
	month = apr,
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {Bolus, Deacon Cell, Overturning, Southern Ocean, Stream function},
	pages = {46--55}
}

@article{armour_southern_2016,
	title = {Southern {Ocean} warming delayed by circumpolar upwelling and equatorward transport},
	volume = {9},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2731},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2731},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Armour, Kyle C. and Marshall, John and Scott, Jeffery R. and Donohoe, Aaron and Newsom, Emily R.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {549--554}
}

@article{archer_atmospheric_2009,
	title = {Atmospheric {Lifetime} of {Fossil} {Fuel} {Carbon} {Dioxide}},
	volume = {37},
	issn = {0084-6597, 1545-4495},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100206},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100206},
	abstract = {CO2 released from combustion of fossil fuels equilibrates among the various carbon reservoirs of the atmosphere, the ocean, and the terrestrial biosphere on timescales of a few centuries. However, a sizeable fraction of the CO2 remains in the atmosphere, awaiting a return to the solid earth by much slower weathering processes and deposition of CaCO3. Common measures of the atmospheric lifetime of CO2, including the e-folding time scale, disregard the long tail. Its neglect in the calculation of global warming potentials leads many to underestimate the longevity of anthropogenic global warming. Here, we review the past literature on the atmospheric lifetime of fossil fuel CO2 and its impact on climate, and we present initial results from a model intercomparison project on this topic. The models agree that 20–35\% of the CO2 remains in the atmosphere after equilibration with the ocean (2–20 centuries). Neutralization by CaCO3 draws the airborne fraction down further on timescales of 3 to 7 kyr.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences},
	author = {Archer, David and Eby, Michael and Brovkin, Victor and Ridgwell, Andy and Cao, Long and Mikolajewicz, Uwe and Caldeira, Ken and Matsumoto, Katsumi and Munhoven, Guy and Montenegro, Alvaro and Tokos, Kathy},
	month = may,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {117--134}
}

@article{abernathey_dependence_2011,
	title = {The {Dependence} of {Southern} {Ocean} {Meridional} {Overturning} on {Wind} {Stress}},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-11-023.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-11-023.1},
	abstract = {An eddy-resolving numerical model of a zonal flow, meant to resemble the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, is described and analyzed using the framework of J. Marshall and T. Radko. In addition to wind and buoyancy forcing at the surface, the model contains a sponge layer at the northern boundary that permits a residual meridional overturning circulation (MOC) to exist at depth. The strength of the residual MOC is diagnosed for different strengths of surface wind stress. It is found that the eddy circulation largely compensates for the changes in Ekman circulation. The extent of the compensation and thus the sensitivity of the MOC to the winds depend on the surface boundary condition. A fixed-heat-flux surface boundary severely limits the ability of the MOC to change. An interactive heat flux leads to greater sensitivity. To explain the MOC sensitivity to the wind strength under the interactive heat flux. transformed Eulerian-mean theory is applied. in which the eddy diffusivity plays a central role in determining the eddy response. A scaling theory for the eddy diffusivity, based on the mechanical energy balance, is developed and tested; the average magnitude of the diffusivity is found to be proportional to the square root of the wind stress. The MOC sensitivity to the winds based on this scaling is compared with the true sensitivity diagnosed from the experiments.},
	number = {12},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Abernathey, Ryan and Marshall, John and Ferreira, David},
	year = {2011},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	pages = {2261--2278}
}

@article{abernathey_topographic_2014,
	title = {Topographic {Enhancement} of {Eddy} {Efficiency} in {Baroclinic} {Equilibration}},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-14-0014.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-14-0014.1},
	abstract = {The processes that determine the depth of the Southern Ocean thermocline are considered. In existing conceptual frameworks, the thermocline depth is determined by competition between the mean and eddy heat transport, with a contribution from the interaction with the stratification in the enclosed portion of the ocean. Using numerical simulations, this study examines the equilibration of an idealized circumpolar current with and without topography. The authors find that eddies are much more efficient when topography is present, leading to a shallower thermocline than in the flat case. A simple quasigeostrophic analytical model shows that the topographically induced standing wave increases the effective eddy diffusivity by increasing the local buoyancy gradients and lengthening the buoyancy contours across which the eddies transport heat. In addition to this local heat flux intensification, transient eddy heat fluxes are suppressed away from the topography, especially upstream, indicating that localized topography leads to local (absolute) baroclinic instability and its subsequent finite-amplitude equilibration, which extracts available potential energy very efficiently from the time-mean flow.},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Abernathey, Ryan and Cessi, Paola},
	month = aug,
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {Baroclinic flows, Circulation/ Dynamics, Geographic location/entity, Mesoscale processes, Orographic effects, Southern Ocean},
	pages = {2107--2126}
}

@article{garrett_boundary_1993,
	title = {Boundary {Mixing} and {Arrested} {Ekman} {Layers}: {Rotating} {Stratified} {Flow} {Near} a {Sloping} {Boundary}},
	volume = {25},
	issn = {0066-4189},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.fl.25.010193.001451},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.fl.25.010193.001451},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	journal = {Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Garrett, C and MacCready, P and Rhines, P},
	month = jan,
	year = {1993},
	note = {Publisher:  Annual Reviews  4139 El Camino Way, P.O. Box 10139, Palo Alto, CA 94303-0139, USA},
	pages = {291--323}
}

@article{garrett_marginal_1991,
	title = {Marginal mixing theories},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0705-5900, 1480-9214},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07055900.1991.9649407},
	doi = {10.1080/07055900.1991.9649407},
	abstract = {Mixing near the sloping boundaries of oceans or lakes may be a significant mechanism of diapycnal transport. The basic physics of this is reviewed, with emphasis on the reduction of the effectiveness of the process due to both reduced stratification and the restratifying secondary circulation driven by buoyancy forces. This re stratification is shown to reduce the effectiveness of intermittent mixing events as well as steady mixing. It is argued that for boundary mixing to be effective in the abyssal ocean it must extend sufficiently far from the boundary that the stratification can be maintained; this may be true for breaking bottom-reflected internal waves. The alongslope flow implied by steadystate boundary mixing theories is downwelling-favourable and has a magnitude related to the thickness and other properties of the boundary layer. Mixing near a boundary may thus tend to drive a downwelling-favourable mean circulation in the interior. If the interior circulation is imposed by other forces, the bottom boundary layer may evolve to a steady state if the interior flow is downwelling-favourable, but if it is upwelling-favourable initially a steady state seems unlikely and the downwelling-favourable alongslope flow induced by the boundary mixing will tend to diffuse slowly into the interior. The nature of the solution in all these cases is sensitive to the Burger number, N2 sin2 θ/f2, where θ is the bottom slope, and to the eddy Prandtl number.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Atmosphere-Ocean},
	author = {Garrett, Chris},
	month = jun,
	year = {1991},
	pages = {313--339}
}

@article{maccready_buoyant_1991,
	title = {Buoyant inhibition of {Ekman} transport on a slope and its effect on stratified spin-up},
	volume = {223},
	issn = {0022-1120},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112091001581},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112091001581},
	number = {-1},
	urldate = {2018-05-11},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {MacCready, Parker and Rhines, Peter B.},
	month = feb,
	year = {1991},
	note = {Publisher: Cambridge University Press},
	pages = {631}
}

@article{garrett_role_1990,
	title = {The role of secondary circulation in boundary mixing},
	volume = {95},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC095iC03p03181},
	doi = {10.1029/JC095iC03p03181},
	number = {C3},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Garrett, Chris},
	month = mar,
	year = {1990},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	pages = {3181}
}

@article{hansen_global_1988,
	title = {Global climate changes as forecast by {Goddard} {Institute} for {Space} {Studies} three-dimensional model},
	volume = {93},
	copyright = {Copyright 1988 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JD093iD08p09341},
	doi = {10.1029/JD093iD08p09341},
	abstract = {We use a three-dimensional climate model, the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) model II with 8° by 10° horizontal resolution, to simulate the global climate effects of time-dependent variations of atmospheric trace gases and aerosols. Horizontal heat transport by the ocean is fixed at values estimated for today's climate, and the uptake of heat perturbations by the ocean beneath the mixed layer is approximated as vertical diffusion. We make a 100-year control run and perform experiments for three scenarios of atmospheric composition. These experiments begin in 1958 and include measured or estimated changes in atmospheric CO2, CH4, N2O, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and stratospheric aerosols for the period from 1958 to the present. Scenario A assumes continued exponential trace gas growth, scenario B assumes a reduced linear growth of trace gases, and scenario C assumes a rapid curtailment of trace gas emissions such that the net climate forcing ceases to increase after the year 2000. Principal results from the experiments are as follows: (1) Global warming to the level attained at the peak of the current interglacial and the previous interglacial occurs in all three scenarios; however, there are dramatic differences in the levels of future warming, depending on trace gas growth. (2) The greenhouse warming should be clearly identifiable in the 1990s; the global warming within the next several years is predicted to reach and maintain a level at least three standard deviations above the climatology of the 1950s. (3) Regions where an unambiguous warming appears earliest are low-latitude oceans, China and interior areas in Asia, and ocean areas near Antarctica and the north pole; aspects of the spatial and temporal distribution of predicted warming are clearly model-dependent, implying the possibility of model discrimination by the 1990s and thus improved predictions, if appropriate observations are acquired. (4) The temperature changes are sufficiently large to have major impacts on people and other parts of the biosphere, as shown by computed changes in the frequency of extreme events and by comparison with previous climate trends. (5) The model results suggest some near-term regional climate variations, despite the fixed ocean heat transport which suppresses many possible regional climate fluctuations; for example, during Hie late 1980s and in the 1990s there is a tendency for greater than average warming in the southeastern and central United States and relatively cooler conditions or less than average warming in the western United States and much of Europe. Principal uncertainties in the predictions involve the equilibrium sensitivity of the model to climate forcing, the assumptions regarding heat uptake and transport by the ocean, and the omission of other less-certain climate forcings.},
	language = {en},
	number = {D8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Hansen, J. and Fung, I. and Lacis, A. and Rind, D. and Lebedeff, S. and Ruedy, R. and Russell, G. and Stone, P.},
	year = {1988},
	pages = {9341--9364}
}

@article{borenas_deep-water_1988,
	title = {On the deep-water flow through the {Faroe} {Bank} {Channel}},
	volume = {93},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC093iC02p01281},
	doi = {10.1029/JC093iC02p01281},
	language = {en},
	number = {C2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Borenäs, Karin M. and Lundberg, Peter A.},
	year = {1988},
	pages = {1281}
}

@article{gregg_diapycnal_1987,
	title = {Diapycnal mixing in the thermocline: {A} review},
	volume = {92},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	shorttitle = {Diapycnal mixing in the thermocline},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC092iC05p05249},
	doi = {10.1029/JC092iC05p05249},
	language = {en},
	number = {C5},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Gregg, M. C.},
	year = {1987},
	pages = {5249}
}

@article{phillips_experiment_1986,
	title = {An experiment on boundary mixing: mean circulation and transport rates},
	volume = {173},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	shorttitle = {An experiment on boundary mixing},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112086001234},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112086001234},
	language = {en},
	number = {-1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Phillips, O. M. and Shyu, Jinn-Hwa and Salmun, Haydee},
	month = dec,
	year = {1986},
	pages = {473}
}

@article{muller_nonlinear_1986,
	title = {Nonlinear interactions among internal gravity waves},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {87551209},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/RG024i003p00493},
	doi = {10.1029/RG024i003p00493},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Müller, Peter and Holloway, Greg and Henyey, Frank and Pomphrey, Neil},
	month = aug,
	year = {1986},
	pages = {493--536}
}
@article{Borenas1986,
	title = {Rotating hydraulics of flow in a parabolic channel},
	volume = {167},
	issn = {0022-1120},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112086002835},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112086002835},
	number = {-1},
	urldate = {2017-12-15},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Borenäs, Karin and Lundberg, Peter and Johnson, R. G. and Schmitz, W. J.},
	month = jun,
	year = {1986},
	note = {Publisher: Cambridge University Press},
	pages = {309}
}

@article{gordon_interocean_1986,
	title = {Interocean exchange of thermocline water},
	volume = {91},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1986JGR....91.5037G&link_type=EJOURNAL\npapers3://publication/doi/10.1029/JC091iC04p05037},
	doi = {10.1029/JC091iC04p05037},
	abstract = {Formation of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) represents a transfer of upper layer water to abyssal depths at a rate of 15 to 20 x 10 6 m3/s. NADW spreads throughout the Atlantic Ocean and is exported to the Indian and Pacific Oceans by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and deep western boundary currents. Naturally, there must be a compensating flow of upper layer water toward the northern North Atlantic to feed NADW production. It is proposed that this return flow is accomplished primarily within the ocean's warm water thermocline layer. In this way the main thermoclines of the ocean are linked as they participate in a thermohaline-driven global scale circulation cell associated with NADW formation. The path of the return flow of warm water is as follows: Pacific to Indian flow within the Indonesian Seas, advection across the Indian Ocean in the 10ø-15øS latitude belt, southward transfer in the Mozambique Channel, entry into the South Atlantic by a branch of the Agulhas Current that does not complete the retroflection pattern, northward advection within the subtropical gyre of the South Atlantic (which on balance with the southward flux of colder North Atlantic Deep Water supports the northward oceanic heat flux characteristic of the South Atlantic), and cross-equatorial flow into the western North Atlantic. The magnitude of the return flow increases along its path as more NADW is incorporated into the upper layer of the ocean. Additionally, the water mass characteristics of the return flow are gradually altered by regional ocean-atmosphere interaction and mixing processes. Within the Indonesian seas there is evidence of strong vertical mixing across the thermocline. The cold water route, Pacific to Atlantic transport of Subantarctic water within the Drake Passage, is of secondary importance, amounting to perhaps 25\% of the warm water route transport. The continuity or vigor of the warm water route is vulnerable to change not only as the thermohaline forcing in the northern North Atlantic varies but also as the larger-scale wind-driven criculation factors vary. The interocean links within the Indonesian seas and at the Agulhas retroflection may be particularly responsive to such variability. Changes in the warn: water route continuity may in turn influence formation characteristics of NADW.},
	number = {6},
	journal = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Gordon, Arnold L.},
	year = {1986},
	note = {ISBN: 0148-0227},
	keywords = {doi:10., http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/JC091iC04p05037},
	pages = {5037--5046}
}

@article{hansen_climate_1985,
	title = {Climate {Response} {Times}: {Dependence} on {Climate} {Sensitivity} and {Ocean} {Mixing}},
	volume = {229},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	shorttitle = {Climate {Response} {Times}},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.229.4716.857},
	doi = {10.1126/science.229.4716.857},
	abstract = {The factors that determine climate response times were investigated with simple models and scaling statements. The response times are particularly sensitive to (i) the amount that the climate response is amplified byfeedbacks and (ii) the representation ofocean mixing. Ifequilibrium climate sensitivity is 3°C or greater for a doubling of the carbon dioxide concentration, then most of the expected warming attributable to trace gases added to the atmosphere by man probably has not yet occurred. This yet to be realized warming calls into question a policy of "wait and see" regarding the issue of how to deal with increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide and other trace gases.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4716},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Hansen, J. and Russell, G. and Lacis, A. and Fung, I. and Rind, D. and Stone, P.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1985},
	pages = {857--859}
}

@article{Pollard1983,
	title = {A coupled climate-ice sheet model applied to the {Quaternary} {Ice} {Ages}},
	volume = {88},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC088iC12p07705},
	doi = {10.1029/JC088iC12p07705},
	number = {C12},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Pollard, David},
	year = {1983},
	pages = {7705}
}

@article{broecker_ocean_1982,
	title = {Ocean chemistry during glacial time},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {00167037},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0016703782901107},
	doi = {10.1016/0016-7037(82)90110-7},
	abstract = {Measurements of CO2 to air ratios in the gas trapped in bubbles in ice of glacial age suggest that the CO2 content of the atmosphere was considerably lower during peak glacial time than during Holocene time. The purpose of this paper is to show that such a change must in all likelihood be the result of alterations in the nutrient element chemistry of sea water. Two possible scenarios are presented. One involves alternate storage and erosion of phosphorous leaving residues from shelf sediments. The other involves changes in the C/P ratio in the organic debris falling to the deep sea. Means of verifying the nutrient cycle hypothesis are also given. It is shown that the ‘)C record as we know it in planktonic and benthic foraminifera, the oxygen record as inferred from benthic foraminifera species distributions, and the early post glacial CaCo, preservation event as recorded by aragonitic pteropods are consistent with both of the hypotheses presented. Only if an early post glacial spike in the “C record for planktonic shells could be found would it be possible to eliminate one of these hypotheses (i.e., that involving shelf storage). The implications of these nutrient hypotheses to climate theory are as follows. If shelf storage is responsible for the glacial to interglacial CO2 increase, then the CO2 change must be considered an amplifier of some primary cause. The reason is that sea level changes are needed to drive deposition on (and erosion from) the shelves. On the other hand, if changes in the C/P ratio for falling debris are responsible, then the CO2 change could either be an amplifier or a primary cause for the major glacial to interglacial climatic cycle. The latter is possible as self-sustained oscillations in ocean chemistry might be driven by interactions between ocean ecology and ocean nutrient chemistry.},
	language = {en},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta},
	author = {Broecker, Wallace S.},
	month = oct,
	year = {1982},
	pages = {1689--1705}
}

@article{hall_direct_1982,
	title = {Direct estimates and mechanisms of ocean heat transport},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {01980149},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0198014982900991},
	doi = {10.1016/0198-0149(82)90099-1},
	abstract = {From oceanographic measurements of currents and temperature used in a direct calculation, ocean heat transport at 25"{\textasciitilde}Nin the Atlantic Ocean was estimated to be 1.1 x l0 t sW. The method used is discussed and the estimate revised to 1.2 x l0 t 5W by using more complete data. An analysis indicates that the results have an error of at most 0.3 x l0 t 5W and that contributions due to the eddy heat flux and seasonal variation are relatively small. The variation of mean meridional volume transport with depth at 25"N has been computed; the profile leads to the estimate of transport in various temperature classes and to some conclusions concerning the mechanisms of heat flux. The freshwater flux at 25°N has been computed; within error it is zero, a result that agrees with the literature.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers},
	author = {Hall, Mindy M. and Bryden, Harry L.},
	month = mar,
	year = {1982},
	pages = {339--359}
}

@article{garrett_mixing_1979,
	title = {Mixing in the ocean interior},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {03770265},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0377026579900113},
	doi = {10.1016/0377-0265(79)90011-3},
	language = {en},
	number = {2-4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Dynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans},
	author = {Garrett, Christopher},
	month = jul,
	year = {1979},
	pages = {239--265}
}

@article{Bryan1979,
	title = {A water mass model of the world ocean},
	volume = {84},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	doi = {10.1029/JC084iC05p02503},
	abstract = {A numerical model of the world ocean is developed to investigate the role of the ocean in the earth's heat balance. Climatological wind stress, temperature, and salinity are imposed as upper boundary conditions. An equilibrium solution is obtained based on an extended numerical integration over the equivalent of 1000 years. Seasonal variations are included. A series of numerical integrations over shorter periods indicate that quantitative aspects, such as the scale depth of the thermocline, are very sensitive to the closure parameterization representing the effect of unresolved scales of motion. The mean depth of the thermocline is found to be in proportion to the global available potential energy. Larger wind driving increases the scale depth of the thermocline, while larger lateral friction or diffusion leads to a shallower thermocline. The model predicts three major meridional cells in the upper thermocline in each hemisphere, corresponding to the three meridional cells of the atmosphere. The tropical and mid-latitude cells are largely wind driven. Thermohaline effects are dominant in the polar meridional cells. Seasonal changes in winds have a profound effect on the meridional circulation in the tropics and cause a flux of surface water from the summer to the winter hemisphere. It is suggested that this mechanism is an important factor in moderating climate by transferring excess heat from the summer hemisphere into the winter hemisphere.},
	number = {C5},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Bryan, K. and Lewis, L. J.},
	year = {1979},
	note = {ISBN: 0148-0227},
	keywords = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/JC084iC05p02503, doi:10.},
	pages = {2503--2517}
}

@article{phillips_flows_1970,
	title = {On flows induced by diffusion in a stably stratified fluid},
	volume = {17},
	issn = {00117471},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0011747170900586},
	doi = {10.1016/0011-7471(70)90058-6},
	abstract = {It is shown theoretically and observed experimentally that spontaneous motions are set up in a stably stratified diffusive fluid in a container whose side-walls are not vertical. The fluid streams up or down the inclined walls in a kind of boundary layer whose Reynolds number is inversely proportional to the Prandtl number. Distributions of velocity and density are found, together with the mass transport in the layer. The same phenomenon results in convective transport along narrow fissures inclined to the vertical that can greatly exceed the diffusivetransport associated with the overall gradient. This is particularly so when the fissure is almost horizontal; the convective mass transport is found to be proportional to the cube of the average density gradient along the fissure and to the ninth power of the fissure width.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts},
	author = {Phillips, O.M.},
	month = jun,
	year = {1970},
	pages = {435--443}
}

@article{bolin_abyssal_1961,
	title = {On the abyssal circulation of the world ocean—{IV}: {Origin} and rate of circulation of deep ocean water as determined with the aid of tracers},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {01466313},
	doi = {10.1016/0146-6313(61)90002-8},
	abstract = {Using box models, and the observed distribution of temperature, salinity and radiocarbon estimates are made of the origins and rate of flow of waters that make up the Common Water in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and Antarctic Intermediate Water. Difficulties in extending the computation to Antarctic Bottom Water are described. Emphasis is placed upon questions of computational reliability and the occurrence of ‘ill-conditioned’ equations.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2016-12-11},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research (1953)},
	author = {Bolin, Bert and Stommel, Henry},
	year = {1961},
	note = {Publisher: Elsevier},
	pages = {95--110}
}

@article{Stommel1957,
	title = {A survey of ocean current theory},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {01466313},
	doi = {10.1016/0146-6313(56)90048-X},
	urldate = {2016-12-04},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research (1953)},
	author = {Stommel, Henry},
	year = {1957},
	note = {Publisher: Elsevier},
	pages = {149--184}
}

@article{stommel_westward_1948,
	title = {The westward intensification of wind-driven ocean currents},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0002-8606},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/TR029i002p00202},
	doi = {10.1029/TR029i002p00202},
	abstract = {A study is made of the wind-driven circulation in a homogeneous r e c tangular ocean under the influence of surface wind s t r e s s , l i n e a r i s e d bottom friction, horizontal pressure gradients caused by a variable surface height, and Corlolie force.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Transactions, American Geophysical Union},
	author = {Stommel, Henry},
	year = {1948},
	pages = {202}
}

@article{mitchell_co2_1987,
	title = {On {Co2} climate sensitivity and model dependence of results},
	volume = {113},
	copyright = {Copyright © 1987 Royal Meteorological Society},
	issn = {1477-870X},
	url = {https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/qj.49711347517},
	doi = {10.1002/qj.49711347517},
	abstract = {The regional response of climate models to small perturbations is shown to be highly dependent on the unperturbed simulation. an experiment in which CO2 concentrations are doubled and sea surface temperatures are enhanced by 2 K has been carried out with two general circulation models which differ considerably in their control climates. the resulting changes in tropical precipitation in each model simulation are related to the increase in atmospheric water vapour which leads to enhanced precipitation in the main regions of low-level atmospheric convergence. Since these regions of convergence occur in slightly different locations in the unperturbed simulations, the distribution of changes is also different. Differences in control simulations must be taken into account when comparing results from different models (for example, on doubling atmospheric CO2); otherwise unduly pessimistic conclusions may be reached concerning the consistency of model results. One may be able to make subjective allowance for the effect of known deficiencies in the unperturbed simulation on the model's response before using the simulated changes in, for example, impact studies. A detailed examination of one of the experiments reveals that the change in precipitation is limited by the heat balance of the atmosphere, and indicates the importance of treating accurately the radiative perturbation due to changes in water vapour. the magnitude of the model's response is shown to be consistent with that found in three-dimensional climate models which include a simple representation of the ocean.},
	language = {en},
	number = {475},
	urldate = {2019-05-27},
	journal = {Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society},
	author = {Mitchell, J. F. B. and Wilson, C. A. and Cunnington, W. M.},
	year = {1987},
	pages = {293--322}
}

@article{mckinnon_observational_2017,
	title = {An “{Observational} {Large} {Ensemble}” to {Compare} {Observed} and {Modeled} {Temperature} {Trend} {Uncertainty} due to {Internal} {Variability}},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0905.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0905.1},
	abstract = {Estimates of the climate response to anthropogenic forcing contain irreducible uncertainty due to the presence of internal variability. Accurate quantification of this uncertainty is critical for both contextualizing historical trends and determining the spread of climate projections. The contribution of internal variability to uncertainty in trends can be estimated in models as the spread across an initial condition ensemble. However, internal variability simulated by a model may be inconsistent with observations due to model biases. Here, statistical resampling methods are applied to observations in order to quantify uncertainty in historical 50-yr (1966–2015) winter near-surface air temperature trends over North America related to incomplete sampling of internal variability. This estimate is compared with the simulated trend uncertainty in the NCAR CESM1 Large Ensemble (LENS). The comparison suggests that uncertainty in trends due to internal variability is largely overestimated in LENS, which has an average amplification of variability of 32\% across North America. The amplification of variability is greatest in the western United States and Alaska. The observationally derived estimate of trend uncertainty is combined with the forced signal from LENS to produce an “Observational Large Ensemble” (OLENS). The members of OLENS indicate the range of observationally constrained, spatially consistent temperature trends that could have been observed over the past 50 years if a different sequence of internal variability had unfolded. The smaller trend uncertainty in OLENS suggests that is easier to detect the historical climate change signal in observations than in any given member of LENS.},
	number = {19},
	urldate = {2019-05-07},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {McKinnon, Karen A. and Poppick, Andrew and Dunn-Sigouin, Etienne and Deser, Clara},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {7585--7598}
}

@article{deser_projecting_2013,
	title = {Projecting {North} {American} {Climate} over the {Next} 50 {Years}: {Uncertainty} due to {Internal} {Variability}},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	shorttitle = {Projecting {North} {American} {Climate} over the {Next} 50 {Years}},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00451.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00451.1},
	abstract = {This study highlights the relative importance of internally generated versus externally forced climate trends over the next 50 yr (2010–60) at local and regional scales over North America in two global coupled model ensembles. Both ensembles contain large numbers of integrations (17 and 40): each of which is subject to identical anthropogenic radiative forcing (e.g., greenhouse gas increase) but begins from a slightly different initial atmospheric state. Thus, the diversity of projected climate trends within each model ensemble is due solely to intrinsic, unpredictable variability of the climate system. Both model ensembles show that natural climate variability superimposed upon forced climate change will result in a range of possible future trends for surface air temperature and precipitation over the next 50 yr. Precipitation trends are particularly subject to uncertainty as a result of internal variability, with signal-to-noise ratios less than 2. Intrinsic atmospheric circulation variability is mainly responsible for the spread in future climate trends, imparting regional coherence to the internally driven air temperature and precipitation trends. The results underscore the importance of conducting a large number of climate change projections with a given model, as each realization will contain a different superposition of unforced and forced trends. Such initial-condition ensembles are also needed to determine the anthropogenic climate response at local and regional scales and provide a new perspective on how to usefully compare climate change projections across models.},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-05-07},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Deser, Clara and Phillips, Adam S. and Alexander, Michael A. and Smoliak, Brian V.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {2271--2296}
}

@article{kay_community_2014,
	title = {The {Community} {Earth} {System} {Model} ({CESM}) {Large} {Ensemble} {Project}: {A} {Community} {Resource} for {Studying} {Climate} {Change} in the {Presence} of {Internal} {Climate} {Variability}},
	volume = {96},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	shorttitle = {The {Community} {Earth} {System} {Model} ({CESM}) {Large} {Ensemble} {Project}},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00255.1},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00255.1},
	abstract = {While internal climate variability is known to affect climate projections, its influence is often underappreciated and confused with model error. Why? In general, modeling centers contribute a small number of realizations to international climate model assessments [e.g., phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5)]. As a result, model error and internal climate variability are difficult, and at times impossible, to disentangle. In response, the Community Earth System Model (CESM) community designed the CESM Large Ensemble (CESM-LE) with the explicit goal of enabling assessment of climate change in the presence of internal climate variability. All CESM-LE simulations use a single CMIP5 model (CESM with the Community Atmosphere Model, version 5). The core simulations replay the twenty to twenty-first century (1920–2100) 30 times under historical and representative concentration pathway 8.5 external forcing with small initial condition differences. Two companion 1000+-yr-long preindustrial control simulations (fully coupled, prognostic atmosphere and land only) allow assessment of internal climate variability in the absence of climate change. Comprehensive outputs, including many daily fields, are available as single-variable time series on the Earth System Grid for anyone to use. Early results demonstrate the substantial influence of internal climate variability on twentieth- to twenty-first-century climate trajectories. Global warming hiatus decades occur, similar to those recently observed. Internal climate variability alone can produce projection spread comparable to that in CMIP5. Scientists and stakeholders can use CESM-LE outputs to help interpret the observational record, to understand projection spread and to plan for a range of possible futures influenced by both internal climate variability and forced climate change.},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-05-07},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Kay, J. E. and Deser, C. and Phillips, A. and Mai, A. and Hannay, C. and Strand, G. and Arblaster, J. M. and Bates, S. C. and Danabasoglu, G. and Edwards, J. and Holland, M. and Kushner, P. and Lamarque, J.-F. and Lawrence, D. and Lindsay, K. and Middleton, A. and Munoz, E. and Neale, R. and Oleson, K. and Polvani, L. and Vertenstein, M.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {1333--1349}
}

@article{jones_assessing_2016,
	title = {Assessing recent trends in high-latitude {Southern} {Hemisphere} surface climate},
	volume = {6},
	copyright = {2016 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {1758-6798},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate3103},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate3103},
	abstract = {Understanding the causes of recent climatic trends and variability in the high-latitude Southern Hemisphere is hampered by a short instrumental record. Here, we analyse recent atmosphere, surface ocean and sea-ice observations in this region and assess their trends in the context of palaeoclimate records and climate model simulations. Over the 36-year satellite era, significant linear trends in annual mean sea-ice extent, surface temperature and sea-level pressure are superimposed on large interannual to decadal variability. Most observed trends, however, are not unusual when compared with Antarctic palaeoclimate records of the past two centuries. With the exception of the positive trend in the Southern Annular Mode, climate model simulations that include anthropogenic forcing are not compatible with the observed trends. This suggests that natural variability overwhelms the forced response in the observations, but the models may not fully represent this natural variability or may overestimate the magnitude of the forced response.},
	language = {en},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2019-04-21},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Jones, Julie M. and Gille, Sarah T. and Goosse, Hugues and Abram, Nerilie J. and Canziani, Pablo O. and Charman, Dan J. and Clem, Kyle R. and Crosta, Xavier and de Lavergne, Casimir and Eisenman, Ian and England, Matthew H. and Fogt, Ryan L. and Frankcombe, Leela M. and Marshall, Gareth J. and Masson-Delmotte, Valérie and Morrison, Adele K. and Orsi, Anaïs J. and Raphael, Marilyn N. and Renwick, James A. and Schneider, David P. and Simpkins, Graham R. and Steig, Eric J. and Stenni, Barbara and Swingedouw, Didier and Vance, Tessa R.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {917--926}
}

@article{stouffer_interhemispheric_1989,
	title = {Interhemispheric asymmetry in climate response to a gradual increase of atmospheric {CO} 2},
	volume = {342},
	copyright = {1989 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {1476-4687},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/342660a0},
	doi = {10.1038/342660a0},
	abstract = {THE transient response of a coupled ocean–atmosphere model to an increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide has been the subject of several studies1–8. The models used in these studies explicitly incorporate the effect of heat transport by ocean currents and are different from the model used by Hansen et al.9. Here we evaluate the climatic influence of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide using a coupled model recently developed at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory. The model response exhibits a marked and unexpected interhemispheric asymmetry. In the circumpolar ocean of the Southern Hemisphere, a region of deep vertical mixing, the increase of surface air temperature is very slow. In the Northern Hemisphere of the model, the warming of surface air is faster and increases with latitude, with the exception of the northern North Atlantic, where it is relatively slow because of the weakening of the thermohaline circulation.},
	language = {En},
	number = {6250},
	urldate = {2019-04-21},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Stouffer, R. J. and Manabe, S. and Bryan, K.},
	month = dec,
	year = {1989},
	pages = {660}
}

@techreport{roeckner_atmospheric_1996,
	type = {Report},
	title = {The atmospheric general circulation model {ECHAM4}: {Model} description and simulation of present-day climate},
	shorttitle = {The atmospheric general circulation model {ECHAM4}},
	url = {http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/31813/},
	abstract = {University Publications},
	urldate = {2019-04-21},
	institution = {Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie},
	author = {Roeckner, E. and Arpe, L. and Bengtsson, Lennart and Christoph, M. and Clauseen, L. and Dümenil, L. and Esch, M. and Giorgetta, M. and Schlese, U. and Schulzweida, U.},
	year = {1996}
}

@article{flato_canadian_2000,
	title = {The {Canadian} {Centre} for {Climate} {Modelling} and {Analysis} global coupled model and its climate},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {1432-0894},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s003820050339},
	doi = {10.1007/s003820050339},
	abstract = {A global, three-dimensional climate model, developed by coupling the CCCma second-generation atmospheric general circulation model (GCM2) to a version of the GFDL modular ocean model (MOM1), forms the basis for extended simulations of past, current and projected future climate. The spin-up and coupling procedures are described, as is the resulting climate based on a 200 year model simulation with constant atmospheric composition and external forcing. The simulated climate is systematically compared to available observations in terms of mean climate quantities and their spatial patterns, temporal variability, and regional behavior. Such comparison demonstrates a generally successful reproduction of the broad features of mean climate quantities, albeit with local discrepancies. Variability is generally well-simulated over land, but somewhat underestimated in the tropical ocean and the extratropical storm-track regions. The modelled climate state shows only small trends, indicating a reasonable level of balance at the surface, which is achieved in part by the use of heat and freshwater flux adjustments. The control simulation provides a basis against which to compare simulated climate change due to historical and projected greenhouse gas and aerosol forcing as described in companion publications.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-04-21},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Flato, G. M. and Boer, G. J. and Lee, W. G. and McFarlane, N. A. and Ramsden, D. and Reader, M. C. and Weaver, A. J.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2000},
	keywords = {Atmospheric General Circulation Model, Freshwater Flux, General Circulation Model, Simulated Climate, Tropical Ocean},
	pages = {451--467}
}

@article{washington_high-latitude_1996,
	title = {High-latitude climate change in a global coupled ocean-atmosphere-sea ice model with increased atmospheric {CO2}},
	volume = {101},
	copyright = {Copyright 1996 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/96JD00505},
	doi = {10.1029/96JD00505},
	abstract = {A global atmospheric general circulation model (GCM) coupled to a global 1-degree, 20-level ocean GCM with dynamic and thermodynamic sea ice is integrated with CO2 increasing at 1\% per year compounded for 75 years (CO2 doubles at about year 70). Flux correction is not used in the experiment. The increase of globally averaged surface air temperature at the time of CO2 doubling is 3.8°C. The warm subsurface Atlantic layer at intermediate depths in the Arctic is maintained mainly by the sinking and intrusion of water from the West Spitsbergen Current in the model and the observations. With increased CO2 in the model, the warmer surface waters are intruded into the upper portion of the Atlantic layer producing an anomalous warming in the model at depths between 200 and 400 m. This resembles an anomalous warm layer near those depths recently observed in the Arctic. As the climate warms and sea ice retreats, low clouds increase over the newly exposed water. Yet the consequent increase of cloud albedo over these regions is more than compensated for by the decrease of surface albedo due to the melting of sea ice. This produces a net decrease of planetary albedo in the Arctic that contributes to a strong ice-albedo feedback and the comparatively high sensitivity of the model.},
	language = {en},
	number = {D8},
	urldate = {2019-04-21},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Washington, Warren M. and Meehl, Gerald A.},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {12795--12801}
}

@article{meehl_climate_1996,
	title = {Climate change from increased {CO2} and direct and indirect effects of sulfate aerosols},
	volume = {23},
	copyright = {Copyright 1996 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/96GL03478},
	doi = {10.1029/96GL03478},
	abstract = {A global coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation model without flux correction is integrated in a set of 75 year sensitivity experiments where the indirect forcing effect of sulfate aerosols is included for the first time in combination with transient greenhouse gas forcing and the direct effect of sulfate aerosols. Sulfate aerosol forcing increases from zero to present-day estimates in the first 30 years of the integrations while equivalent CO2 forcing increases by 1\% per year relative to the control experiment, similar to the rate of increase of observed greenhouse gas forcing over the period 1960–1990. Annual mean averages around year 30, analogous to present-day conditions, indicate better agreement with recent observed geographic and zonal mean temperature anomaly patterns in the sulfate aerosol experiments and less warming in northern summer than winter. Sulfate aerosols then are increased following the IS92a scenario, while CO2 continues to increase at 1\% per year. Averages around year 65, analogous to conditions roughly 35 years in the future, indicate warming almost everywhere in the troposphere over the globe as the CO2 forcing overwhelms the negative radiative forcing from the sulfate aerosols. There is also a general indication of weakening of the south Asian monsoon in the sulfate aerosol experiments. There is qualitative agreement in the patterns of the temperature changes, both geographic and zonal, between the different sulfate aerosol experiments, with the magnitude of the changes a function of the size of the forcing.},
	language = {en},
	number = {25},
	urldate = {2019-04-21},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Meehl, Gerald A. and Washington, Warren M. and Erickson, David J. and Briegleb, Bruce P. and Jaumann, Peter J.},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {3755--3758}
}

@article{pierce_selecting_2009,
	title = {Selecting global climate models for regional climate change studies},
	volume = {106},
	copyright = {© 2009},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {https://www.pnas.org/content/106/21/8441},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.0900094106},
	abstract = {Regional or local climate change modeling studies currently require starting with a global climate model, then downscaling to the region of interest. How should global models be chosen for such studies, and what effect do such choices have? This question is addressed in the context of a regional climate detection and attribution (D\&A) study of January-February-March (JFM) temperature over the western U.S. Models are often selected for a regional D\&A analysis based on the quality of the simulated regional climate. Accordingly, 42 performance metrics based on seasonal temperature and precipitation, the El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation are constructed and applied to 21 global models. However, no strong relationship is found between the score of the models on the metrics and results of the D\&A analysis. Instead, the importance of having ensembles of runs with enough realizations to reduce the effects of natural internal climate variability is emphasized. Also, the superiority of the multimodel ensemble average (MM) to any 1 individual model, already found in global studies examining the mean climate, is true in this regional study that includes measures of variability as well. Evidence is shown that this superiority is largely caused by the cancellation of offsetting errors in the individual global models. Results with both the MM and models picked randomly confirm the original D\&A results of anthropogenically forced JFM temperature changes in the western U.S. Future projections of temperature do not depend on model performance until the 2080s, after which the better performing models show warmer temperatures.},
	language = {en},
	number = {21},
	urldate = {2019-04-20},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Pierce, David W. and Barnett, Tim P. and Santer, Benjamin D. and Gleckler, Peter J.},
	month = may,
	year = {2009},
	pmid = {19439652},
	keywords = {anthropogenic forcing, detection and attribution, regional modeling},
	pages = {8441--8446}
}

@article{braconnot_evaluation_2012,
	title = {Evaluation of climate models using palaeoclimatic data},
	volume = {2},
	copyright = {2012 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {1758-6798},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1456},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate1456},
	abstract = {There is large uncertainty about the magnitude of warming and how rainfall patterns will change in response to any given scenario of future changes in atmospheric composition and land use. The models used for future climate projections were developed and calibrated using climate observations from the past 40 years. The geologic record of environmental responses to climate changes provides a unique opportunity to test model performance outside this limited climate range. Evaluation of model simulations against palaeodata shows that models reproduce the direction and large-scale patterns of past changes in climate, but tend to underestimate the magnitude of regional changes. As part of the effort to reduce model-related uncertainty and produce more reliable estimates of twenty-first century climate, the Palaeoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project is systematically applying palaeoevaluation techniques to simulations of the past run with the models used to make future projections. This evaluation will provide assessments of model performance, including whether a model is sufficiently sensitive to changes in atmospheric composition, as well as providing estimates of the strength of biosphere and other feedbacks that could amplify the model response to these changes and modify the characteristics of climate variability.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-04-20},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Braconnot, Pascale and Harrison, Sandy P. and Kageyama, Masa and Bartlein, Patrick J. and Masson-Delmotte, Valerie and Abe-Ouchi, Ayako and Otto-Bliesner, Bette and Zhao, Yan},
	month = jun,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {417--424}
}

@article{rauser_rethinking_2014,
	title = {Rethinking the {Default} {Construction} of {Multimodel} {Climate} {Ensembles}},
	volume = {96},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00181.1},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00181.1},
	abstract = {We discuss the current code of practice in the climate sciences to routinely create climate model ensembles as ensembles of opportunity from the newest phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP). We give a two-step argument to rethink this process. First, the differences between generations of ensembles corresponding to different CMIP phases in key climate quantities are not large enough to warrant an automatic separation into generational ensembles for CMIP3 and CMIP5. Second, we suggest that climate model ensembles cannot continue to be mere ensembles of opportunity but should always be based on a transparent scientific decision process. If ensembles can be constrained by observation, then they should be constructed as target ensembles that are specifically tailored to a physical question. If model ensembles cannot be constrained by observation, then they should be constructed as cross-generational ensembles, including all available model data to enhance structural model diversity and to better sample the underlying uncertainties. To facilitate this, CMIP should guide the necessarily ongoing process of updating experimental protocols for the evaluation and documentation of coupled models. With an emphasis on easy access to model data and facilitating the filtering of climate model data across all CMIP generations and experiments, our community could return to the underlying idea of using model data ensembles to improve uncertainty quantification, evaluation, and cross-institutional exchange.},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-04-20},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Rauser, Florian and Gleckler, Peter and Marotzke, Jochem},
	month = oct,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {911--919}
}

@article{knutson_model_1999,
	title = {Model assessment of regional surface temperature trends (1949–1997)},
	volume = {104},
	copyright = {This paper is not subject to U.S. copyright. Published in 1999 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/1999JD900965},
	doi = {10.1029/1999JD900965},
	abstract = {Analyses are conducted to assess whether simulated trends in SST and land surface air temperature from two versions of a coupled ocean-atmosphere model are consistent with the geographical distribution of observed trends over the period 1949–1997. The simulated trends are derived from model experiments with both constant and time-varying radiative forcing. The models analyzed are low-resolution (R 15, ∼4°) and medium-resolution (R30, ∼2°) versions of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) coupled climate model. Internal climate variability is estimated from long control integrations of the models with no change of external forcing. The radiatively forced trends are based on ensembles of integrations using estimated past concentrations of greenhouse gases and direct effects of anthropogenic sulfate aerosols (G+S). For the regional assessment, the observed trends at each grid point with adequate temporal coverage during 1949–1997 are first compared with the R15 and R30 model unforced internal variability. Nearly 50\% of the analyzed areas have observed warming trends exceeding the 95th percentile of trends from the control simulations. These results suggest that regional warming trends over much of the globe during 1949–1997 are very unlikely to have occurred due to internal climate variability alone and suggest a role for a sustained positive thermal forcing such as increasing greenhouse gases. The observed trends are then compared with the trend distributions obtained by combining the ensemble mean G+S forced trends with the internal variability “trend” distributions from the control runs. Better agreement is found between the ensemble mean G+S trends and the observed trends than between the model internal variability alone and the observed trends. However, the G+S trends are still significantly different from the observed trends over about 30\% of the areas analyzed. Reasons for these regional inconsistencies between the simulated and the observed trends include possible deficiencies in (1) specified radiative forcings, (2) simulated responses to specified radiative forcings, (3) simulation of internal climate variability, or (4) observed temperature records.},
	language = {en},
	number = {D24},
	urldate = {2019-04-20},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Knutson, T. R. and Delworth, T. L. and Dixon, K. W. and Stouffer, R. J.},
	year = {1999},
	pages = {30981--30996}
}

@article{knutson_multimodel_2013,
	title = {Multimodel {Assessment} of {Regional} {Surface} {Temperature} {Trends}: {CMIP3} and {CMIP5} {Twentieth}-{Century} {Simulations}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	shorttitle = {Multimodel {Assessment} of {Regional} {Surface} {Temperature} {Trends}},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00567.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00567.1},
	abstract = {Regional surface temperature trends from phase 3 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP3) and CMIP5 twentieth-century runs are compared with observations—at spatial scales ranging from global averages to individual grid points—using simulated intrinsic climate variability from preindustrial control runs to assess whether observed trends are detectable and/or consistent with the models' historical run trends. The CMIP5 models are also used to detect anthropogenic components of the observed trends, by assessing alternative hypotheses based on scenarios driven with either anthropogenic plus natural forcings combined, or with natural forcings only. Modeled variability is assessed via inspection of control run time series, standard deviation maps, spectral analyses, and low-frequency variance consistency tests. The models are found to provide plausible representations of internal climate variability, although there is room for improvement. The influence of observational uncertainty on the trends is assessed and is found to be generally small in comparison with intrinsic climate variability. Observed temperature trends over 1901–2010 are found to contain detectable anthropogenic warming components over a large fraction (about 80\%) of the analyzed global area. In about 70\% of the analyzed area, the modeled warming is consistent with the observed trends; in about 10\% it is significantly greater than simulated. Regions without detectable warming include the high-latitude North Atlantic Ocean, the eastern United States, and parts of the eastern and northern Pacific Ocean. For 1981–2010, the observed warming trends over only about 30\% of the globe are found to contain a detectable anthropogenic warming: this includes a number of regions within about 40°–45° of the equator, particularly in the Indian Ocean, western Pacific, South Asia, and tropical Atlantic.},
	number = {22},
	urldate = {2019-04-20},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Knutson, Thomas R. and Zeng, Fanrong and Wittenberg, Andrew T.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {8709--8743}
}

@article{burke_pliocene_2018,
	title = {Pliocene and {Eocene} provide best analogs for near-future climates},
	volume = {115},
	copyright = {© 2018 . Published under the PNAS license.},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {https://www.pnas.org/content/115/52/13288},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1809600115},
	abstract = {As the world warms due to rising greenhouse gas concentrations, the Earth system moves toward climate states without societal precedent, challenging adaptation. Past Earth system states offer possible model systems for the warming world of the coming decades. These include the climate states of the Early Eocene (ca. 50 Ma), the Mid-Pliocene (3.3–3.0 Ma), the Last Interglacial (129–116 ka), the Mid-Holocene (6 ka), preindustrial (ca. 1850 CE), and the 20th century. Here, we quantitatively assess the similarity of future projected climate states to these six geohistorical benchmarks using simulations from the Hadley Centre Coupled Model Version 3 (HadCM3), the Goddard Institute for Space Studies Model E2-R (GISS), and the Community Climate System Model, Versions 3 and 4 (CCSM) Earth system models. Under the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 (RCP8.5) emission scenario, by 2030 CE, future climates most closely resemble Mid-Pliocene climates, and by 2150 CE, they most closely resemble Eocene climates. Under RCP4.5, climate stabilizes at Pliocene-like conditions by 2040 CE. Pliocene-like and Eocene-like climates emerge first in continental interiors and then expand outward. Geologically novel climates are uncommon in RCP4.5 ({\textless}1\%) but reach 8.7\% of the globe under RCP8.5, characterized by high temperatures and precipitation. Hence, RCP4.5 is roughly equivalent to stabilizing at Pliocene-like climates, while unmitigated emission trajectories, such as RCP8.5, are similar to reversing millions of years of long-term cooling on the scale of a few human generations. Both the emergence of geologically novel climates and the rapid reversion to Eocene-like climates may be outside the range of evolutionary adaptive capacity.},
	language = {en},
	number = {52},
	urldate = {2019-04-20},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Burke, K. D. and Williams, J. W. and Chandler, M. A. and Haywood, A. M. and Lunt, D. J. and Otto-Bliesner, B. L.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2018},
	pmid = {30530685},
	keywords = {climate analog, climate change, no analog, paleoclimate, planetary boundary},
	pages = {13288--13293}
}

@misc{noauthor_pliocene_nodate,
	title = {Pliocene and {Eocene} provide best analogs for near-future climates {\textbar} {PNAS}},
	url = {https://www.pnas.org/content/115/52/13288},
	urldate = {2019-04-20}
}

@article{sutton_land/sea_2007,
	title = {Land/sea warming ratio in response to climate change: {IPCC} {AR4} model results and comparison with observations},
	volume = {34},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	shorttitle = {Land/sea warming ratio in response to climate change},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2006GL028164},
	doi = {10.1029/2006GL028164},
	abstract = {Climate model simulations consistently show that in response to greenhouse gas forcing surface temperatures over land increase more rapidly than over sea. The enhanced warming over land is not simply a transient effect, since it is also present in equilibrium conditions. We examine 20 models from the IPCC AR4 database. The global land/sea warming ratio varies in the range 1.36–1.84, independent of global mean temperature change. In the presence of increasing radiative forcing, the warming ratio for a single model is fairly constant in time, implying that the land/sea temperature difference increases with time. The warming ratio varies with latitude, with a minimum in equatorial latitudes, and maxima in the subtropics. A simple explanation for these findings is provided, and comparisons are made with observations. For the low-latitude (40°S–40°N) mean, the models suggest a warming ratio of 1.51 ± 0.13, while recent observations suggest a ratio of 1.54 ± 0.09.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-04-20},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Sutton, Rowan T. and Dong, Buwen and Gregory, Jonathan M.},
	year = {2007},
	keywords = {IPCC, global warming, land-sea warming ration}
}

@article{hawkins_time_2012,
	title = {Time of emergence of climate signals},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2011GL050087},
	doi = {10.1029/2011GL050087},
	abstract = {The time at which the signal of climate change emerges from the noise of natural climate variability (Time of Emergence, ToE) is a key variable for climate predictions and risk assessments. Here we present a methodology for estimating ToE for individual climate models, and use it to make maps of ToE for surface air temperature (SAT) based on the CMIP3 global climate models. Consistent with previous studies we show that the median ToE occurs several decades sooner in low latitudes, particularly in boreal summer, than in mid-latitudes. We also show that the median ToE in the Arctic occurs sooner in boreal winter than in boreal summer. A key new aspect of our study is that we quantify the uncertainty in ToE that arises not only from inter-model differences in the magnitude of the climate change signal, but also from large differences in the simulation of natural climate variability. The uncertainty in ToE is at least 30 years in the regions examined, and as much as 60 years in some regions. Alternative emissions scenarios lead to changes in both the median ToE (by a decade or more) and its uncertainty. The SRES B1 scenario is associated with a very large uncertainty in ToE in some regions. Our findings have important implications for climate modelling and climate policy which we discuss.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-04-20},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Hawkins, E. and Sutton, R.},
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {climate variability, temperature change, time of emergence}
}

@article{meehl_decadal_2013,
	title = {Decadal {Climate} {Prediction}: {An} {Update} from the {Trenches}},
	volume = {95},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	shorttitle = {Decadal {Climate} {Prediction}},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00241.1},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00241.1},
	abstract = {This paper provides an update on research in the relatively new and fast-moving field of decadal climate prediction, and addresses the use of decadal climate predictions not only for potential users of such information but also for improving our understanding of processes in the climate system. External forcing influences the predictions throughout, but their contributions to predictive skill become dominant after most of the improved skill from initialization with observations vanishes after about 6–9 years. Recent multimodel results suggest that there is relatively more decadal predictive skill in the North Atlantic, western Pacific, and Indian Oceans than in other regions of the world oceans. Aspects of decadal variability of SSTs, like the mid-1970s shift in the Pacific, the mid-1990s shift in the northern North Atlantic and western Pacific, and the early-2000s hiatus, are better represented in initialized hindcasts compared to uninitialized simulations. There is evidence of higher skill in initialized multimodel ensemble decadal hindcasts than in single model results, with multimodel initialized predictions for near-term climate showing somewhat less global warming than uninitialized simulations. Some decadal hindcasts have shown statistically reliable predictions of surface temperature over various land and ocean regions for lead times of up to 6–9 years, but this needs to be investigated in a wider set of models. As in the early days of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) prediction, improvements to models will reduce the need for bias adjustment, and increase the reliability, and thus usefulness, of decadal climate predictions in the future.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-04-17},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Meehl, Gerald A. and Goddard, Lisa and Boer, George and Burgman, Robert and Branstator, Grant and Cassou, Christophe and Corti, Susanna and Danabasoglu, Gokhan and Doblas-Reyes, Francisco and Hawkins, Ed and Karspeck, Alicia and Kimoto, Masahide and Kumar, Arun and Matei, Daniela and Mignot, Juliette and Msadek, Rym and Navarra, Antonio and Pohlmann, Holger and Rienecker, Michele and Rosati, Tony and Schneider, Edwin and Smith, Doug and Sutton, Rowan and Teng, Haiyan and van Oldenborgh, Geert Jan and Vecchi, Gabriel and Yeager, Stephen},
	month = apr,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {243--267}
}

@article{meehl_decadal_2009,
	title = {Decadal {Prediction}},
	volume = {90},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/2009BAMS2778.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2009BAMS2778.1},
	abstract = {A new field of study, “decadal prediction,” is emerging in climate science. Decadal prediction lies between seasonal/interannual forecasting and longer-term climate change projections, and focuses on time-evolving regional climate conditions over the next 10–30 yr. Numerous assessments of climate information user needs have identified this time scale as being important to infrastructure planners, water resource managers, and many others. It is central to the information portfolio required to adapt effectively to and through climatic changes. At least three factors influence time-evolving regional climate at the decadal time scale: 1) climate change commitment (further warming as the coupled climate system comes into adjustment with increases of greenhouse gases that have already occurred), 2) external forcing, particularly from future increases of greenhouse gases and recovery of the ozone hole, and 3) internally generated variability. Some decadal prediction skill has been demonstrated to arise from the first two of these factors, and there is evidence that initialized coupled climate models can capture mechanisms of internally generated decadal climate variations, thus increasing predictive skill globally and particularly regionally. Several methods have been proposed for initializing global coupled climate models for decadal predictions, all of which involve global time-evolving three-dimensional ocean data, including temperature and salinity. An experimental framework to address decadal predictability/prediction is described in this paper and has been incorporated into the coordinated Coupled Model Intercomparison Model, phase 5 (CMIP5) experiments, some of which will be assessed for the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5). These experiments will likely guide work in this emerging field over the next 5 yr.},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2019-04-17},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Meehl, Gerald A. and Goddard, Lisa and Murphy, James and Stouffer, Ronald J. and Boer, George and Danabasoglu, Gokhan and Dixon, Keith and Giorgetta, Marco A. and Greene, Arthur M. and Hawkins, Ed and Hegerl, Gabriele and Karoly, David and Keenlyside, Noel and Kimoto, Masahide and Kirtman, Ben and Navarra, Antonio and Pulwarty, Roger and Smith, Doug and Stammer, Detlef and Stockdale, Timothy},
	month = oct,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {1467--1486}
}

@incollection{collins_chapter_2013,
	address = {Cambridge},
	title = {Chapter 12 - {Long}-term climate change: {Projections}, commitments and irreversibility},
	copyright = {cc\_by},
	shorttitle = {Chapter 12 - {Long}-term climate change},
	url = {http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_Chapter12_FINAL.pdf},
	abstract = {This chapter assesses long-term projections of climate change for the end of the 21st century and beyond, where the forced signal depends on the scenario and is typically larger than the internal variability of the climate system. Changes are expressed with respect to a baseline period of 1986-2005, unless otherwise stated.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-04-17},
	booktitle = {Climate {Change} 2013: {The} {Physical} {Science} {Basis}. {IPCC} {Working} {Group} {I} {Contribution} to {AR5}},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Collins, M. and Knutti, R. and Arblaster, J. and Dufresne, J.-L. and Fichefet, T. and Friedlingstein, P. and Gao, X. and Gutowski, W. J. and Johns, T. and Krinner, G. and Shongwe, M. and Tebaldi, C. and Weaver, A. J. and Wehner, M.},
	editor = {IPCC},
	collaborator = {Allen, M. R. and Andrews, T. and Beyerle, U. and Bitz, C. M. and Bony, S. and Booth, B. B. B. and Brooks, H. E. and Brovkin, V. and Browne, O. and Brutel-Vuilmet, C. and Cane, M. and Chadwick, R. and Cook, E. and Cook, K. H. and Eby, M. and Fasullo, J. and Fischer, E. M. and Forest, C. E. and Forster, P. and Good, P. and Goosse, H. and Gregory, J. M. and Hegerl, G. C. and Hezel, P. J. and Hodges, K. I. and Holland, M. M. and Huber, M. and Huybrechts, P. and Joshi, M. and Kharin, V. and Kushnir, Y. and Lawrence, D. M. and Lee, R. W. and Liddicoat, S. and Lucas, C. and Lucht, W. and Marotzke, J. and Massonnet, F. and Matthews, H. D. and Meinshausen, M. and Morice, C. and Otto, A. and Patricola, C. M. and Philippon-Berthier, G. and Prabhat and Rahmstorf, S. and Riley, W. J. and Rogelj, J. and Saenko, O. and Seagar, R. and Sedlacek, J. and Shaffrey, L. C. and Shindell, D. and Sillmann, J. and Slater, A. and Stevens, B. and Stott, P. A. and Webb, R. and Zappa, G. and Zickfeld, K.},
	year = {2013}
}

@article{boer_climate_2003,
	title = {Climate sensitivity and response},
	volume = {20},
	issn = {1432-0894},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-002-0283-3},
	doi = {10.1007/s00382-002-0283-3},
	abstract = {. Results from climate change simulations indicate a reasonably robust proportionality between global mean radiative forcing and global mean surface air temperature response. The "constant" of proportionality is a measure of the overall strength of climate feedback processes and hence of global climate sensitivity. Geographically, however, temperature response patterns are generally not proportional to, nor do they resemble, their parent forcing patterns. Temperature response patterns, nevertheless, exhibit a remarkable additivity whereby the sum of response patterns for different forcings closely resembles the response pattern for the sum of the forcings. The geographical distribution of contributions to the climate sensitivity/feedback are obtained diagnostically from simulations with the Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis (CCCma) coupled global climate model (GCM). There is positive feedback over high-latitude oceans, over northern land areas, and over the equatorial Pacific. The remaining regions over oceans and tropical land areas exhibit negative feedback. The feedback results are decomposed into components associated with short-and longwave radiative processes and in terms of cloud-free atmosphere/surface and cloud feedbacks. While the geographic pattern of the feedbacks may generally be linked to local processes, all feedback processes display regions of both positive and negative values (except for the solar atmosphere/surface feedback associated with the retreat of ice and snow which is positive) and all vary from place to place so that there is no simple physical picture that operates everywhere. The stable geographical pattern of the feedback is a consequence of the balance between local physical processes rather than the dominance of a particular process.The feedback results indicate that, to first order, temperature response patterns are determined by the geographical pattern of local feedback processes. The feedback processes act to localize forcing changes and to generate temperature response patterns which depend firstly on the pattern of feedbacks and only secondarily on the pattern of the forcing. The geographical distribution of feedback processes can be regarded as a feature of the climate model (and by inference of the climate system) and not (or only comparatively weak) functions of forcing and climate state. An illustrative model is able to reproduce qualitatively the kinds of forcing/temperature response behavior seen in the CCCma GCM including the quasi-independence of forcing and response patterns, the additivity of temperature response patterns, and the resulting "non-constancy" of the global climate sensitivity.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-04-17},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Boer, G. and Yu, B.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2003},
	keywords = {Climate Feedback, Climate Sensitivity, Cloud Feedback, Feedback Process, Global Climate Model},
	pages = {415--429}
}

@article{smith_role_2016,
	title = {Role of volcanic and anthropogenic aerosols in the recent global surface warming slowdown},
	volume = {6},
	copyright = {2016 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {1758-6798},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate3058},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate3058},
	abstract = {The rate of global mean surface temperature (GMST) warming has slowed this century despite the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases. Climate model experiments1,2,3,4 show that this slowdown was largely driven by a negative phase of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), with a smaller external contribution from solar variability, and volcanic and anthropogenic aerosols5,6. The prevailing view is that this negative PDO occurred through internal variability7,8,9,10,11. However, here we show that coupled models from the Fifth Coupled Model Intercomparison Project robustly simulate a negative PDO in response to anthropogenic aerosols implying a potentially important role for external human influences. The recovery from the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 also contributed to the slowdown in GMST trends. Our results suggest that a slowdown in GMST trends could have been predicted in advance, and that future reduction of anthropogenic aerosol emissions, particularly from China, would promote a positive PDO and increased GMST trends over the coming years. Furthermore, the overestimation of the magnitude of recent warming by models is substantially reduced by using detection and attribution analysis to rescale their response to external factors, especially cooling following volcanic eruptions. Improved understanding of external influences on climate is therefore crucial to constrain near-term climate predictions.},
	language = {en},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2019-04-04},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Smith, Doug M. and Booth, Ben B. B. and Dunstone, Nick J. and Eade, Rosie and Hermanson, Leon and Jones, Gareth S. and Scaife, Adam A. and Sheen, Katy L. and Thompson, Vikki},
	month = oct,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {936--940}
}

@article{hansen_global_2010,
	title = {Global surface temperature change},
	volume = {48},
	issn = {8755-1209},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2010RG000345},
	doi = {10.1029/2010RG000345},
	abstract = {We update the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) analysis of global surface temperature change, compare alternative analyses, and address questions about perception and reality of global warming. Satellite-observed night lights are used to identify measurement stations located in extreme darkness and adjust temperature trends of urban and periurban stations for nonclimatic factors, verifying that urban effects on analyzed global change are small. Because the GISS analysis combines available sea surface temperature records with meteorological station measurements, we test alternative choices for the ocean data, showing that global temperature change is sensitive to estimated temperature change in polar regions where observations are limited. We use simple 12 month (and n ? 12) running means to improve the information content in our temperature graphs. Contrary to a popular misconception, the rate of warming has not declined. Global temperature is rising as fast in the past decade as in the prior 2 decades, despite year-to-year fluctuations associated with the El Niño-La Niña cycle of tropical ocean temperature. Record high global 12 month running mean temperature for the period with instrumental data was reached in 2010.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-04-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Hansen, J. and Ruedy, R. and Sato, M. and Lo, K.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2010},
	keywords = {El Niño-La Niña, climate change, global change, global temperature, temperature analysis}
}

@misc{noauthor_global_nodate,
	title = {{GLOBAL} {SURFACE} {TEMPERATURE} {CHANGE} - {Hansen} - 2010 - {Reviews} of {Geophysics} - {Wiley} {Online} {Library}},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2010RG000345},
	urldate = {2019-04-02}
}

@book{intergovernmental_panel_on_climate_change_global_2018,
	title = {Global warming of 1.5°{C}},
	url = {http://www.ipcc.ch/report/sr15/},
	abstract = {"An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty."},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-04-02},
	author = {{Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change}},
	year = {2018},
	note = {OCLC: 1056192590}
}

@article{broecker_thermohaline_1997,
	title = {Thermohaline {Circulation}, the {Achilles} {Heel} of {Our} {Climate} {System}: {Will} {Man}-{Made} {CO2} {Upset} the {Current} {Balance}?},
	volume = {278},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	shorttitle = {Thermohaline {Circulation}, the {Achilles} {Heel} of {Our} {Climate} {System}},
	url = {http://science.sciencemag.org/content/278/5343/1582},
	doi = {10.1126/science.278.5343.1582},
	abstract = {During the last glacial period, Earth's climate underwent frequent large and abrupt global changes. This behavior appears to reflect the ability of the ocean's thermohaline circulation to assume more than one mode of operation. The record in ancient sedimentary rocks suggests that similar abrupt changes plagued the Earth at other times. The trigger mechanism for these reorganizations may have been the antiphasing of polar insolation associated with orbital cycles. Were the ongoing increase in atmospheric CO2 levels to trigger another such reorganization, it would be bad news for a world striving to feed 11 to 16 billion people.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5343},
	urldate = {2019-04-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Broecker, Wallace S.},
	month = nov,
	year = {1997},
	pmid = {9374450},
	pages = {1582--1588}
}

@article{forster_evaluating_2013,
	title = {Evaluating adjusted forcing and model spread for historical and future scenarios in the {CMIP5} generation of climate models},
	volume = {118},
	issn = {2169-897X},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jgrd.50174},
	doi = {10.1002/jgrd.50174},
	abstract = {We utilize energy budget diagnostics from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) to evaluate the models' climate forcing since preindustrial times employing an established regression technique. The climate forcing evaluated this way, termed the adjusted forcing (AF), includes a rapid adjustment term associated with cloud changes and other tropospheric and land-surface changes. We estimate a 2010 total anthropogenic and natural AF from CMIP5 models of 1.9?±?0.9?W?m?2 (5?95\% range). The projected AF of the Representative Concentration Pathway simulations are lower than their expected radiative forcing (RF) in 2095 but agree well with efficacy weighted forcings from integrated assessment models. The smaller AF, compared to RF, is likely due to cloud adjustment. Multimodel time series of temperature change and AF from 1850 to 2100 have large intermodel spreads throughout the period. The intermodel spread of temperature change is principally driven by forcing differences in the present day and climate feedback differences in 2095, although forcing differences are still important for model spread at 2095. We find no significant relationship between the equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) of a model and its 2003 AF, in contrast to that found in older models where higher ECS models generally had less forcing. Given the large present-day model spread, there is no indication of any tendency by modelling groups to adjust their aerosol forcing in order to produce observed trends. Instead, some CMIP5 models have a relatively large positive forcing and overestimate the observed temperature change.},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-03-28},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Forster, Piers M. and Andrews, Timothy and Good, Peter and Gregory, Jonathan M. and Jackson, Lawrence S. and Zelinka, Mark},
	month = feb,
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {CMIP5, climate sensitivity, forcing, model spread, rapid adjustment},
	pages = {1139--1150}
}

@misc{noauthor_evaluating_nodate,
	title = {Evaluating adjusted forcing and model spread for historical and future scenarios in the {CMIP5} generation of climate models - {Forster} - 2013 - {Journal} of {Geophysical} {Research}: {Atmospheres} - {Wiley} {Online} {Library}},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jgrd.50174},
	urldate = {2019-03-28}
}

@article{mitchell_climate_1995,
	title = {Climate response to increasing levels of greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols},
	volume = {376},
	copyright = {1995 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {1476-4687},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/376501a0},
	doi = {10.1038/376501a0},
	abstract = {CLIMATE models suggest that increases in greenhouse-gas concentrations in the atmosphere should have produced a larger global mean warming than has been observed in recent decades, unless the climate is less sensitive than is predicted by the present generation of coupled general circulation models1,2. After greenhouse gases, sulphate aerosols probably exert the next largest anthropogenic radiative forcing of the atmosphere3, but their influence on global mean warming has not been assessed using such models. Here we use a coupled oceaná¤-atmosphere general circulation model to simulate past and future climate since the beginning of the near-global instrumental surface-temperature record4, and include the effects of the scattering of radiation by sulphate aerosols. The inclusion of sulphate aerosols significantly improves the agreement with observed global mean and large-scale patterns of temperature in recent decades, although the improvement in simulations of specific regions is equivocal. We predict a future global mean warming of 0.3 K per decade for greenhouse gases alone, or 0.2 K per decade with sulphate aerosol forcing included. By 2050, all land areas have warmed in our simulations, despite strong negative radiative forcing in some regions. These model results suggest that global warming could accelerate as greenhouse-gas forcing begins to dominate over sulphate aerosol forcing.},
	language = {En},
	number = {6540},
	urldate = {2019-03-28},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Mitchell, J. F. B. and Johns, T. C. and Gregory, J. M. and Tett, S. F. B.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1995},
	pages = {501}
}

@article{alley_abrupt_2003,
	title = {Abrupt {Climate} {Change}},
	volume = {299},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://science.sciencemag.org/content/299/5615/2005},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1081056},
	abstract = {Large, abrupt, and widespread climate changes with major impacts have occurred repeatedly in the past, when the Earth system was forced across thresholds. Although abrupt climate changes can occur for many reasons, it is conceivable that human forcing of climate change is increasing the probability of large, abrupt events. Were such an event to recur, the economic and ecological impacts could be large and potentially serious. Unpredictability exhibited near climate thresholds in simple models shows that some uncertainty will always be associated with projections. In light of these uncertainties, policy-makers should consider expanding research into abrupt climate change, improving monitoring systems, and taking actions designed to enhance the adaptability and resilience of ecosystems and economies.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5615},
	urldate = {2019-03-27},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Alley, R. B. and Marotzke, J. and Nordhaus, W. D. and Overpeck, J. T. and Peteet, D. M. and Pielke, R. A. and Pierrehumbert, R. T. and Rhines, P. B. and Stocker, T. F. and Talley, L. D. and Wallace, J. M.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2003},
	pmid = {12663908},
	pages = {2005--2010}
}

@article{marshall_john_oceans_2014,
	title = {The ocean's role in polar climate change: asymmetric {Arctic} and {Antarctic} responses to greenhouse gas and ozone forcing},
	volume = {372},
	shorttitle = {The ocean's role in polar climate change},
	url = {https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsta.2013.0040},
	doi = {10.1098/rsta.2013.0040},
	abstract = {In recent decades, the Arctic has been warming and sea ice disappearing. By contrast, the Southern Ocean around Antarctica has been (mainly) cooling and sea-ice extent growing. We argue here that interhemispheric asymmetries in the mean ocean circulation, with sinking in the northern North Atlantic and upwelling around Antarctica, strongly influence the sea-surface temperature (SST) response to anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) forcing, accelerating warming in the Arctic while delaying it in the Antarctic. Furthermore, while the amplitude of GHG forcing has been similar at the poles, significant ozone depletion only occurs over Antarctica. We suggest that the initial response of SST around Antarctica to ozone depletion is one of cooling and only later adds to the GHG-induced warming trend as upwelling of sub-surface warm water associated with stronger surface westerlies impacts surface properties. We organize our discussion around ‘climate response functions’ (CRFs), i.e. the response of the climate to ‘step’ changes in anthropogenic forcing in which GHG and/or ozone-hole forcing is abruptly turned on and the transient response of the climate revealed and studied. Convolutions of known or postulated GHG and ozone-hole forcing functions with their respective CRFs then yield the transient forced SST response (implied by linear response theory), providing a context for discussion of the differing warming/cooling trends in the Arctic and Antarctic. We speculate that the period through which we are now passing may be one in which the delayed warming of SST associated with GHG forcing around Antarctica is largely cancelled by the cooling effects associated with the ozone hole. By mid-century, however, ozone-hole effects may instead be adding to GHG warming around Antarctica but with diminished amplitude as the ozone hole heals. The Arctic, meanwhile, responding to GHG forcing but in a manner amplified by ocean heat transport, may continue to warm at an accelerating rate.},
	number = {2019},
	urldate = {2019-03-26},
	journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences},
	author = {{Marshall John} and {Armour Kyle C.} and {Scott Jeffery R.} and {Kostov Yavor} and {Hausmann Ute} and {Ferreira David} and {Shepherd Theodore G.} and {Bitz Cecilia M.}},
	month = jul,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {20130040}
}

@article{mauritsen_tuning_2012,
	title = {Tuning the climate of a global model},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {1942-2466},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2012MS000154},
	doi = {10.1029/2012MS000154},
	abstract = {During a development stage global climate models have their properties adjusted or tuned in various ways to best match the known state of the Earth's climate system. These desired properties are observables, such as the radiation balance at the top of the atmosphere, the global mean temperature, sea ice, clouds and wind fields. The tuning is typically performed by adjusting uncertain, or even non-observable, parameters related to processes not explicitly represented at the model grid resolution. The practice of climate model tuning has seen an increasing level of attention because key model properties, such as climate sensitivity, have been shown to depend on frequently used tuning parameters. Here we provide insights into how climate model tuning is practically done in the case of closing the radiation balance and adjusting the global mean temperature for the Max Planck Institute Earth System Model (MPI-ESM). We demonstrate that considerable ambiguity exists in the choice of parameters, and present and compare three alternatively tuned, yet plausible configurations of the climate model. The impacts of parameter tuning on climate sensitivity was less than anticipated.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-03-26},
	journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
	author = {Mauritsen, Thorsten and Stevens, Bjorn and Roeckner, Erich and Crueger, Traute and Esch, Monika and Giorgetta, Marco and Haak, Helmuth and Jungclaus, Johann and Klocke, Daniel and Matei, Daniela and Mikolajewicz, Uwe and Notz, Dirk and Pincus, Robert and Schmidt, Hauke and Tomassini, Lorenzo},
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {climate, development, models, tuning}
}

@article{hirst_deep-water_1996,
	title = {Deep-{Water} {Properties} and {Surface} {Buoyancy} {Flux} as {Simulated} by a {Z}-{Coordinate} {Model} {Including} {Eddy}-{Induced} {Advection}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485(1996)026%3C1320:DWPASB%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1996)026<1320:DWPASB>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {A parameterization for the adiabatic transport effect of eddies is introduced into a World Ocean model based on the Bryan-Cox code. The model topography is only lightly smoothed and retains realistic sill depths and representation of continental shelves commensurate with the model's 1.6° latitude by 2.8° longitude resolution. The parameterization allows the model to be run without horizontal diffusivity (though only under certain conditions as discussed). A first (control) run features a typical horizontal diffusivity and no eddy-induced transport. A second run features the eddy-induced transport scheme and zero horizontal diffusivity. Substantial changes occur between the runs in subsurface temperature, salinity, and density throughout the model ocean. The most profound changes occur in the deep ocean and feature a marked increase in density in the second run associated with a substantial decline in temperature (especially in the Atlantic) and an increase in salinity (especially in the Southern, Indian, and Pacific Oceans). The large changes in deep-water properties reflect a marked change in the relationship between dense sill/shelf overflow water and the water that reaches the deep ocean. Deep water in the second run much more closely resembles the source overflow water, because of elimination of local and remote effects of horizontal diffusivity, and because of reduced convection and isopycnal slope near downslope flows resulting from direct action by the transport scheme. The deep-water properties in the second run are clearly more realistic than in the first. The greater density in the second run is achieved despite substantial reductions in polar surface heat and salt fluxes from those in the first run. In particular, surface fluxes near Antarctica are generally small and smoothly varying in the second run. Water mass Interactions important in the formation of model deep water are examined. The realistically high density of Circumpolar Deep Water in the second run prevents the occurrence of widespread deep convection near Antarctica, which, in the first run, seriously depletes the salinity of this water mass and consequently leads to marked salinity deficiencies in the deep Indian and Pacific Oceans. This convection also severely distorts the surface flux patterns near Antarctica. Practical implications of the marked reduction in Antarctic convection are discussed. Finally, a third run shows that much of the benefit of the eddy-induced transport scheme accrues upon its introduction even when the standard horizontal diffusivity is retained. This last result supports the use of the scheme even in models where the resolution is too come to allow for complete elimination of horizontal diffusivity.},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-03-26},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Hirst, Anthony C. and McDougall, Trevor J.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1996},
	pages = {1320--1343}
}

@article{gent_gentmcwilliams_2011,
	series = {Modelling and {Understanding} the {Ocean} {Mesoscale} and {Submesoscale}},
	title = {The {Gent}–{McWilliams} parameterization: 20/20 hindsight},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {1463-5003},
	shorttitle = {The {Gent}–{McWilliams} parameterization},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1463500310001253},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2010.08.002},
	abstract = {It has now been 20years since the Gent and McWilliams paper on “Isopycnal Mixing in Ocean Circulation Models” was published in January 1990 issue of the Journal of Physical Oceanography. That paper was highlighted at the CLIVAR Working Group on Ocean Model Development “Workshop on Ocean Mesoscale Eddies” which was held at the UK Meteorological Office in April 2009, and this review paper is based on the talk given at that Workshop. It contains some hindsights on how the parameterization of the effect of mesoscale eddies on the mean flow came about; which is a question that I am asked quite often. A few important results from including the parameterization in a non-eddy-resolving ocean model are recalled. Including this parameterization, along with other improvements to all the components, in the first version of the Community Climate System Model resulted in the first non-drifting control simulation in a climate model that did not require flux corrections. Also included are brief comments on how the Gent and McWilliams eddy parameterization has been modified and improved since the original proposal in 1990.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-03-26},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Gent, Peter R.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {Climate models, Mesoscale eddies, Parameterization},
	pages = {2--9}
}

@article{kiehl_twentieth_2007,
	title = {Twentieth century climate model response and climate sensitivity},
	volume = {34},
	copyright = {Copyright 2007 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2007GL031383},
	doi = {10.1029/2007GL031383},
	abstract = {Climate forcing and climate sensitivity are two key factors in understanding Earth's climate. There is considerable interest in decreasing our uncertainty in climate sensitivity. This study explores the role of these two factors in climate simulations of the 20th century. It is found that the total anthropogenic forcing for a wide range of climate models differs by a factor of two and that the total forcing is inversely correlated to climate sensitivity. Much of the uncertainty in total anthropogenic forcing derives from a threefold range of uncertainty in the aerosol forcing used in the simulations.},
	language = {en},
	number = {22},
	urldate = {2019-03-26},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Kiehl, Jeffrey T.},
	year = {2007},
	keywords = {climate forcing, climate model, climate sensitivity}
}

@article{allen_quantifying_2000,
	title = {Quantifying the uncertainty in forecasts of anthropogenic climate change},
	volume = {407},
	copyright = {2000 Macmillan Magazines Ltd.},
	issn = {1476-4687},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/35036559},
	doi = {10.1038/35036559},
	abstract = {Forecasts of climate change are inevitably uncertain. It is therefore essential to quantify the risk of significant departures from the predicted response to a given emission scenario. Previous analyses of this risk have been based either on expert opinion1, perturbation analysis of simplified climate models2,3,4,5 or the comparison of predictions from general circulation models6. Recent observed changes that appear to be attributable to human influence7,8,9,10,11,12 provide a powerful constraint on the uncertainties in multi-decadal forecasts. Here we assess the range of warming rates over the coming 50 years that are consistent with the observed near-surface temperature record as well as with the overall patterns of response predicted by several general circulation models. We expect global mean temperatures in the decade 2036–46 to be 1–2.5 K warmer than in pre-industrial times under a ‘business as usual’ emission scenario. This range is relatively robust to errors in the models' climate sensitivity, rate of oceanic heat uptake or global response to sulphate aerosols as long as these errors are persistent over time. Substantial changes in the current balance of greenhouse warming and sulphate aerosol cooling would, however, increase the uncertainty. Unlike 50-year warming rates, the final equilibrium warming after the atmospheric composition stabilizes remains very uncertain, despite the evidence provided by the emerging signal.},
	language = {En},
	number = {6804},
	urldate = {2019-03-26},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Allen, Myles R. and Stott, Peter A. and Mitchell, John F. B. and Schnur, Reiner and Delworth, Thomas L.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2000},
	pages = {617}
}

@article{knutti_challenges_2009,
	title = {Challenges in {Combining} {Projections} from {Multiple} {Climate} {Models}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/2009JCLI3361.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JCLI3361.1},
	abstract = {Recent coordinated efforts, in which numerous general circulation climate models have been run for a common set of experiments, have produced large datasets of projections of future climate for various scenarios. Those multimodel ensembles sample initial conditions, parameters, and structural uncertainties in the model design, and they have prompted a variety of approaches to quantifying uncertainty in future climate change. International climate change assessments also rely heavily on these models. These assessments often provide equal-weighted averages as best-guess results, assuming that individual model biases will at least partly cancel and that a model average prediction is more likely to be correct than a prediction from a single model based on the result that a multimodel average of present-day climate generally outperforms any individual model. This study outlines the motivation for using multimodel ensembles and discusses various challenges in interpreting them. Among these challenges are that the number of models in these ensembles is usually small, their distribution in the model or parameter space is unclear, and that extreme behavior is often not sampled. Model skill in simulating present-day climate conditions is shown to relate only weakly to the magnitude of predicted change. It is thus unclear by how much the confidence in future projections should increase based on improvements in simulating present-day conditions, a reduction of intermodel spread, or a larger number of models. Averaging model output may further lead to a loss of signal—for example, for precipitation change where the predicted changes are spatially heterogeneous, such that the true expected change is very likely to be larger than suggested by a model average. Last, there is little agreement on metrics to separate “good” and “bad” models, and there is concern that model development, evaluation, and posterior weighting or ranking are all using the same datasets. While the multimodel average appears to still be useful in some situations, these results show that more quantitative methods to evaluate model performance are critical to maximize the value of climate change projections from global models.},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2019-03-21},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Knutti, Reto and Furrer, Reinhard and Tebaldi, Claudia and Cermak, Jan and Meehl, Gerald A.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {2739--2758}
}

@article{taylor_overview_2011,
	title = {An {Overview} of {CMIP5} and the {Experiment} {Design}},
	volume = {93},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00094.1},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00094.1},
	abstract = {The fifth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) will produce a state-of-the- art multimodel dataset designed to advance our knowledge of climate variability and climate change. Researchers worldwide are analyzing the model output and will produce results likely to underlie the forthcoming Fifth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Unprecedented in scale and attracting interest from all major climate modeling groups, CMIP5 includes “long term” simulations of twentieth-century climate and projections for the twenty-first century and beyond. Conventional atmosphere–ocean global climate models and Earth system models of intermediate complexity are for the first time being joined by more recently developed Earth system models under an experiment design that allows both types of models to be compared to observations on an equal footing. Besides the longterm experiments, CMIP5 calls for an entirely new suite of “near term” simulations focusing on recent decades and the future to year 2035. These “decadal predictions” are initialized based on observations and will be used to explore the predictability of climate and to assess the forecast system's predictive skill. The CMIP5 experiment design also allows for participation of stand-alone atmospheric models and includes a variety of idealized experiments that will improve understanding of the range of model responses found in the more complex and realistic simulations. An exceptionally comprehensive set of model output is being collected and made freely available to researchers through an integrated but distributed data archive. For researchers unfamiliar with climate models, the limitations of the models and experiment design are described.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-03-21},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Taylor, Karl E. and Stouffer, Ronald J. and Meehl, Gerald A.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {485--498}
}
@misc{noauthor_ar2:_nodate,
	title = {{AR2}: {The} {Science} of {Climate} {Change} — {IPCC}},
	shorttitle = {{AR2}},
	url = {https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar2/wg1/},
	urldate = {2019-03-21}
}

@misc{noauthor_ar5_nodate,
	title = {{AR5} {Synthesis} {Report}: {Climate} {Change} 2014 — {IPCC}},
	shorttitle = {{AR5} {Synthesis} {Report}},
	url = {https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/},
	urldate = {2019-03-21}
}

@article{hourdin_art_2016,
	title = {The {Art} and {Science} of {Climate} {Model} {Tuning}},
	volume = {98},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00135.1},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00135.1},
	abstract = {The process of parameter estimation targeting a chosen set of observations is an essential aspect of numerical modeling. This process is usually named tuning in the climate modeling community. In climate models, the variety and complexity of physical processes involved, and their interplay through a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, must be summarized in a series of approximate submodels. Most submodels depend on uncertain parameters. Tuning consists of adjusting the values of these parameters to bring the solution as a whole into line with aspects of the observed climate. Tuning is an essential aspect of climate modeling with its own scientific issues, which is probably not advertised enough outside the community of model developers. Optimization of climate models raises important questions about whether tuning methods a priori constrain the model results in unintended ways that would affect our confidence in climate projections. Here, we present the definition and rationale behind model tuning, review specific methodological aspects, and survey the diversity of tuning approaches used in current climate models. We also discuss the challenges and opportunities in applying so-called objective methods in climate model tuning. We discuss how tuning methodologies may affect fundamental results of climate models, such as climate sensitivity. The article concludes with a series of recommendations to make the process of climate model tuning more transparent.},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-03-21},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Hourdin, Frédéric and Mauritsen, Thorsten and Gettelman, Andrew and Golaz, Jean-Christophe and Balaji, Venkatramani and Duan, Qingyun and Folini, Doris and Ji, Duoying and Klocke, Daniel and Qian, Yun and Rauser, Florian and Rio, Catherine and Tomassini, Lorenzo and Watanabe, Masahiro and Williamson, Daniel},
	month = jul,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {589--602}
}

@article{schmidt_practice_2017,
	title = {Practice and philosophy of climate model tuning across six {US} modeling centers},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1991-959X},
	url = {https://www.geosci-model-dev.net/10/3207/2017/gmd-10-3207-2017.html},
	doi = {https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-3207-2017},
	abstract = {{\textless}p{\textgreater}{\textless}strong{\textgreater}Abstract.{\textless}/strong{\textgreater} Model calibration (or {\textless}q{\textgreater}tuning{\textless}/q{\textgreater}) is a necessary part of developing and testing coupled ocean–atmosphere climate models regardless of their main scientific purpose. There is an increasing recognition that this process needs to become more transparent for both users of climate model output and other developers. Knowing how and why climate models are tuned and which targets are used is essential to avoiding possible misattributions of skillful predictions to data accommodation and vice versa. This paper describes the approach and practice of model tuning for the six major US climate modeling centers. While details differ among groups in terms of scientific missions, tuning targets, and tunable parameters, there is a core commonality of approaches. However, practices differ significantly on some key aspects, in particular, in the use of initialized forecast analyses as a tool, the explicit use of the historical transient record, and the use of the present-day radiative imbalance vs. the implied balance in the preindustrial era as a target.{\textless}/p{\textgreater}},
	language = {English},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2019-03-21},
	journal = {Geoscientific Model Development},
	author = {Schmidt, Gavin A. and Bader, David and Donner, Leo J. and Elsaesser, Gregory S. and Golaz, Jean-Christophe and Hannay, Cecile and Molod, Andrea and Neale, Richard B. and Saha, Suranjana},
	month = sep,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {3207--3223}
}

@article{rohde_berkeley_2016,
	title = {Berkeley {Earth} {Temperature} {Averaging} {Process}},
	volume = {2013},
	url = {https://www.scitechnol.com/berkeley-earth-temperature-averaging-process-IpUG.php?article_id=582},
	doi = {10.4172/2327-4581.1000103},
	abstract = {Berkeley Earth Temperature Averaging Process A new mathematical framework is presented for producing maps and large-scale averages of temperature changes from weather station thermometer data for the purposes of climate analysis. The method allows inclusion of short and discontinuous temperature records, so nearly all digitally archived thermometer data can be used. The framework uses the statistical method known as Kriging to interpolate data from stations to arbitrary locations on the Earth.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-03-06},
	journal = {Geoinformatics \& Geostatistics: An Overview},
	author = {Rohde, Robert and Muller, Richard and Jacobsen, Robert and Perlmutter, Saul and Rosenfeld, Arthur and Wurtele, Jonathan and Curry, Judith and Wickham, Charlotte and Mosher, Steven},
	month = oct,
	year = {2016}
}

@misc{noauthor_berkeley_nodate,
	title = {Berkeley {Earth} {Temperature} {Averaging} {Process} {\textbar} {Request} {PDF}},
	url = {https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288325258_Berkeley_Earth_Temperature_Averaging_Process},
	abstract = {Request PDF on ResearchGate {\textbar} On Jan 1, 2013, Robert Rohde and others published Berkeley Earth Temperature Averaging Process},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-03-06},
	journal = {ResearchGate}
}

@article{parker_impact_1996,
	title = {The {Impact} of {Mount} {Pinatubo} on {World}-{Wide} {Temperatures}},
	volume = {16},
	copyright = {Copyright © 1996 The Royal Meteorological Society},
	issn = {1097-0088},
	url = {https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/%28SICI%291097-0088%28199605%2916%3A5%3C487%3A%3AAID-JOC39%3E3.0.CO%3B2-J},
	doi = {10.1002/(SICI)1097-0088(199605)16:5<487::AID-JOC39>3.0.CO;2-J},
	abstract = {We monitor and model the effects on world-wide temperatures of the June 1991 volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. Global mean air temperatures were reduced, by up to 0·5°C at the surface and 0·6°C in the troposphere, for some months in mid-1992, in approximate accord with model predictions. Differences from these predictions occurred in the Northern Hemisphere winters of 1991–1992 and 1992–1993, as a result of atmospheric circulation changes that yielded continental surface warmings not fully reproduced by the model. The effects of the eruption were less evident by 1994. A superposed-epoch composite for five major tropical eruptions shows significant global post-eruption cooling at the surface when the effects of the El Ni7o–Southern Oscillation are removed from the data. Stratospheric warmth following Pinatubo lasted until early 1993 according to Microwave Sounding Unit data.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {International Journal of Climatology},
	author = {Parker, D. E. and Wilson, H. and Jones, P. D. and Christy, J. R. and Folland, C. K.},
	year = {1996},
	keywords = {Mount Pinatubo, atmosphreric circulation, temperature variations, volcanic eruptions},
	pages = {487--497}
}

@article{hansen_potential_1992,
	title = {Potential climate impact of {Mount} {Pinatubo} eruption},
	volume = {19},
	copyright = {Copyright 1992 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/91GL02788},
	doi = {10.1029/91GL02788},
	abstract = {We use the GISS global climate model to make a preliminary estimate of Mount Pinatubo's climate impact. Assuming the aerosol optical depth is nearly twice as great as for the 1982 El Chichon eruption, the model forecasts a dramatic but temporary break in recent global warming trends. The simulations indicate that Pinatubo occurred too late in the year to prevent 1991 from becoming one of the warmest years in instrumental records, but intense aerosol cooling is predicted to begin late in 1991 and to maximize late in 1992. The predicted cooling is sufficiently large that by mid 1992 it should even overwhelm global warming associated with an El Nino that appears to be developing, but the El Nino could shift the time of minimum global temperature into 1993. The model predicts a return to record warm levels in the later 1990s. We estimate the effect of the predicted global cooling on such practical matters as the severity of the coming Soviet winter and the dates of cherry blossoming next spring, and discuss caveats which must accompany these preliminary simulations.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Hansen, James and Lacis, Andrew and Ruedy, Reto and Sato, Makiko},
	year = {1992},
	pages = {215--218}
}

@article{cowtan_robust_2015,
	title = {Robust comparison of climate models with observations using blended land air and ocean sea surface temperatures},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0094-8276},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2015GL064888},
	doi = {10.1002/2015GL064888},
	abstract = {Abstract The level of agreement between climate model simulations and observed surface temperature change is a topic of scientific and policy concern. While the Earth system continues to accumulate energy due to anthropogenic and other radiative forcings, estimates of recent surface temperature evolution fall at the lower end of climate model projections. Global mean temperatures from climate model simulations are typically calculated using surface air temperatures, while the corresponding observations are based on a blend of air and sea surface temperatures. This work quantifies a systematic bias in model-observation comparisons arising from differential warming rates between sea surface temperatures and surface air temperatures over oceans. A further bias arises from the treatment of temperatures in regions where the sea ice boundary has changed. Applying the methodology of the HadCRUT4 record to climate model temperature fields accounts for 38\% of the discrepancy in trend between models and observations over the period 1975?2014.},
	number = {15},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Cowtan, Kevin and Hausfather, Zeke and Hawkins, Ed and Jacobs, Peter and Mann, Michael E. and Miller, Sonya K. and Steinman, Byron A. and Stolpe, Martin B. and Way, Robert G.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {climate models, temperature record},
	pages = {6526--6534}
}

@article{knutti_climate_2013,
	title = {Climate model genealogy: {Generation} {CMIP5} and how we got there},
	volume = {40},
	copyright = {©2013. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	shorttitle = {Climate model genealogy},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/grl.50256},
	doi = {10.1002/grl.50256},
	abstract = {AbstractA new ensemble of climate models is becoming available and provides the basis for climate change projections. Here, we show a first analysis indicating that the models in the new ensemble agree better with observations than those in older ones and that the poorest models have been eliminated. Most models are strongly tied to their predecessors, and some also exchange ideas and code with other models, thus supporting an earlier hypothesis that the models in the new ensemble are neither independent of each other nor independent of the earlier generation. On the basis of one atmosphere model, we show how statistical methods can identify similarities between model versions and complement process understanding in characterizing how and why a model has changed. We argue that the interdependence of models complicates the interpretation of multimodel ensembles but largely goes unnoticed.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Knutti, Reto and Masson, David and Gettelman, Andrew},
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {GCM, independence, model genealogy, multimodel},
	pages = {1194--1199}
}

@article{tebaldi_claudia_use_2007,
	title = {The use of the multi-model ensemble in probabilistic climate projections},
	volume = {365},
	url = {https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsta.2007.2076},
	doi = {10.1098/rsta.2007.2076},
	abstract = {Recent coordinated efforts, in which numerous climate models have been run for a common set of experiments, have produced large datasets of projections of future climate for various scenarios. Those multi-model ensembles sample initial condition, parameter as well as structural uncertainties in the model design, and they have prompted a variety of approaches to quantify uncertainty in future climate in a probabilistic way. This paper outlines the motivation for using multi-model ensembles, reviews the methodologies published so far and compares their results for regional temperature projections. The challenges in interpreting multi-model results, caused by the lack of verification of climate projections, the problem of model dependence, bias and tuning as well as the difficulty in making sense of an ‘ensemble of opportunity’, are discussed in detail.},
	number = {1857},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences},
	author = {{Tebaldi Claudia} and {Knutti Reto}},
	month = aug,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {2053--2075}
}

@article{knutti_why_2008,
	title = {Why are climate models reproducing the observed global surface warming so well?},
	volume = {35},
	copyright = {Copyright 2008 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2008GL034932},
	doi = {10.1029/2008GL034932},
	abstract = {Climate models reproduce the observed surface warming better than one would expect given the uncertainties in radiative forcing, climate sensitivity and ocean heat uptake, suggesting that different models show similar warming for different reasons. It is shown that while climate sensitivity and radiative forcing are indeed correlated across the latest ensemble of models, eliminating this correlation would not strongly change the uncertainty range of long-term temperature projections. However, since most models do not incorporate the aerosol indirect effects, model agreement with observations may be partly spurious. The incorporation of more detailed aerosol effects in future models could lead to inconsistencies between simulated and observed past warming, unless the effects are small or compensated by additional forcings. It is argued that parameter correlations across models are neither unexpected nor problematic if the models are interpreted as conditional on observations.},
	language = {en},
	number = {18},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Knutti, Reto},
	year = {2008},
	keywords = {climate sensitivity, model evaluation, observed warming}
}

@article{schwartz_quantifying_2007,
	title = {Quantifying climate change — too rosy a picture?},
	copyright = {2007 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {1758-6798},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/climate.2007.22},
	doi = {10.1038/climate.2007.22},
	abstract = {The latest report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assesses the skill of climate models by their ability to reproduce warming over the twentieth century, but in doing so may give a false sense of their predictive capability.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Schwartz, Stephen E. and Charlson, Robert J. and Rodhe, Henning},
	month = jun,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {23--24}
}

@article{eyring_taking_2019,
	title = {Taking climate model evaluation to the next level},
	volume = {9},
	copyright = {2019 Springer Nature Limited},
	issn = {1758-6798},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0355-y},
	doi = {10.1038/s41558-018-0355-y},
	abstract = {Earth system models project likely future climates, however, evaluation of their output is challenging. This Perspective discusses new evaluation approaches, considering both simulations and observations, to ensure credible information for decision-making.},
	language = {En},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Eyring, Veronika and Cox, Peter M. and Flato, Gregory M. and Gleckler, Peter J. and Abramowitz, Gab and Caldwell, Peter and Collins, William D. and Gier, Bettina K. and Hall, Alex D. and Hoffman, Forrest M. and Hurtt, George C. and Jahn, Alexandra and Jones, Chris D. and Klein, Stephen A. and Krasting, John P. and Kwiatkowski, Lester and Lorenz, Ruth and Maloney, Eric and Meehl, Gerald A. and Pendergrass, Angeline G. and Pincus, Robert and Ruane, Alex C. and Russell, Joellen L. and Sanderson, Benjamin M. and Santer, Benjamin D. and Sherwood, Steven C. and Simpson, Isla R. and Stouffer, Ronald J. and Williamson, Mark S.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {102}
}

@article{min_seung-ki_probabilistic_2007,
	title = {Probabilistic climate change predictions applying {Bayesian} model averaging},
	volume = {365},
	url = {https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsta.2007.2070},
	doi = {10.1098/rsta.2007.2070},
	abstract = {This study explores the sensitivity of probabilistic predictions of the twenty-first century surface air temperature (SAT) changes to different multi-model averaging methods using available simulations from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change fourth assessment report. A way of observationally constrained prediction is provided by training multi-model simulations for the second half of the twentieth century with respect to long-term components. The Bayesian model averaging (BMA) produces weighted probability density functions (PDFs) and we compare two methods of estimating weighting factors: Bayes factor and expectation–maximization algorithm. It is shown that Bayesian-weighted PDFs for the global mean SAT changes are characterized by multi-modal structures from the middle of the twenty-first century onward, which are not clearly seen in arithmetic ensemble mean (AEM). This occurs because BMA tends to select a few high-skilled models and down-weight the others. Additionally, Bayesian results exhibit larger means and broader PDFs in the global mean predictions than the unweighted AEM. Multi-modality is more pronounced in the continental analysis using 30-year mean (2070–2099) SATs while there is only a little effect of Bayesian weighting on the 5–95\% range. These results indicate that this approach to observationally constrained probabilistic predictions can be highly sensitive to the method of training, particularly for the later half of the twenty-first century, and that a more comprehensive approach combining different regions and/or variables is required.},
	number = {1857},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences},
	author = {{Min Seung-Ki} and {Simonis Daniel} and {Hense Andreas}},
	month = aug,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {2103--2116}
}

@misc{noauthor_taking_nodate,
	title = {Taking climate model evaluation to the next level {\textbar} {Nature} {Climate} {Change}},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0355-y},
	urldate = {2019-03-05}
}

@article{wilks_stippling_2016,
	title = {“{The} {Stippling} {Shows} {Statistically} {Significant} {Grid} {Points}”: {How} {Research} {Results} are {Routinely} {Overstated} and {Overinterpreted}, and {What} to {Do} about {It}},
	volume = {97},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	shorttitle = {“{The} {Stippling} {Shows} {Statistically} {Significant} {Grid} {Points}”},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00267.1},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00267.1},
	abstract = {Special care must be exercised in the interpretation of multiple statistical hypothesis tests—for example, when each of many tests corresponds to a different location. Correctly interpreting results of multiple simultaneous tests requires a higher standard of evidence than is the case when evaluating results of a single test, and this has been known in the atmospheric sciences literature for more than a century. Even so, the issue continues to be widely ignored, leading routinely to overstatement and overinterpretation of scientific results, to the detriment of the discipline. This paper reviews the history of the multiple-testing issue within the atmospheric sciences literature and illustrates a statistically principled and computationally easy approach to dealing with it—namely, control of the false discovery rate.},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Wilks, D. S.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {2263--2273}
}

@misc{noauthor_probabilistic_nodate,
	title = {Probabilistic climate change predictions applying {Bayesian} model averaging {\textbar} {Philosophical} {Transactions} of the {Royal} {Society} {A}: {Mathematical}, {Physical} and {Engineering} {Sciences}},
	url = {https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsta.2007.2070?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&},
	urldate = {2019-03-05}
}

@article{whittleston_multimodel_2018,
	title = {Multimodel {Future} {Projections} of {Wintertime} {North} {Atlantic} and {North} {Pacific} {Tropospheric} {Jets}: {A} {Bayesian} {Analysis}},
	volume = {31},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	shorttitle = {Multimodel {Future} {Projections} of {Wintertime} {North} {Atlantic} and {North} {Pacific} {Tropospheric} {Jets}},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0316.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0316.1},
	abstract = {The impact of future greenhouse gas forcing on the North Atlantic and North Pacific tropospheric jets remains uncertain. Opposing changes in the latitudinal temperature gradient—forced by amplified lower-atmospheric Arctic warming versus upper-atmospheric tropical warming—make robust predictions a challenge. Despite some models simulating more realistic jets than others, it remains the prevailing approach to treat each model as equally probable (i.e., democratic weighting). This study compares democratically weighted projections to an alternative Bayesian-weighting method based on the ability of models to simulate historical wintertime jet climatology. The novel Bayesian technique is developed to be broadly applicable to high-dimensional fields. Results show the Bayesian weighting can reduce systematic bias and suggest the wintertime jet response to greenhouse gas forcing is largely independent of this historical bias (i.e., not state dependent). A future strengthening and narrowing is seen in both winter jets, particularly at the upper levels. The widely reported poleward shift at the level of the eddy-driven jet does not appear statistically robust, particularly over the North Atlantic, indicating sensitivity to current model deficiencies.},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Whittleston, D. and McColl, K. A. and Entekhabi, D.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {2533--2545}
}

@article{min_bayesian_2004,
	title = {A {Bayesian} decision method for climate change signal analysis},
	issn = {,},
	url = {https://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/metz/detail/13/53333/A_Bayesian_decision_method_for_climate_change_signal_analysis},
	doi = {10.1127/0941-2948/2004/0013-0421},
	language = {pt},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Meteorologische Zeitschrift},
	author = {Min, Seung-Ki and Hense, Andreas and Paeth, Heiko and Kwon, Won-Tae},
	month = oct,
	year = {2004},
	pages = {421--436}
}

@article{gordon_transient_1997,
	title = {Transient {Climate} {Change} in the {CSIRO} {Coupled} {Model} with {Dynamic} {Sea} {Ice}},
	volume = {125},
	issn = {0027-0644},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/1520-0493(1997)125%3C0875%3ATCCITC%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0493(1997)125<0875:TCCITC>2.0.CO;2},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	author = {Gordon, Hal B. and O’Farrell, Siobhan P.},
	month = may,
	year = {1997},
	pages = {875--908}
}

@book{change_climate_1996,
	title = {Climate {Change} 1995: {The} {Science} of {Climate} {Change}: {Contribution} of {Working} {Group} {I} to the {Second} {Assessment} {Report} of the {Intergovernmental} {Panel} on {Climate} {Change}},
	isbn = {978-0-521-56436-6},
	shorttitle = {Climate {Change} 1995},
	abstract = {The IPCC reports represent the primary source of scientific and technical advice for the implementation of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. This assessment therefore forms the standard scientific reference for all those concerned with climate change and its consequences, including policy makers in governments and industry worldwide, and researchers and senior-level students in environmental science, meteorology, climatology, biology, ecology and atmospheric chemistry.},
	language = {en},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Change, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate and group 2, Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur l'évolution du climat Working},
	month = jun,
	year = {1996},
	note = {Google-Books-ID: k9n8v\_7foQkC},
	keywords = {Nature / Weather, Science / Earth Sciences / Meteorology \& Climatology, Science / Global Warming \& Climate Change}
}

@misc{change_climate_1995,
	type = {Text},
	title = {Climate {Change} 1995: {IPCC} {Second} {Assessment} {Report}},
	shorttitle = {Climate {Change} 1995},
	url = {https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc11834/},
	abstract = {The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) completed its Second Assessment Report in December 1995. The major conclusions are that greenhouse gas concentrations are increasing, the global climate has been changing, and will likely continue to change, probably due to human influence.},
	language = {English},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Digital Library},
	author = {Change, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate},
	year = {1995}
}

@misc{noauthor_climate_nodate,
	title = {Climate {Change} 1995 - {IPCC} {Second} {Assessment} {Report} - 2nd {Assessment} {Report} - {IIASA}},
	url = {http://www.iiasa.ac.at/web/home/research/ResearchPartners/Climate-Change-1995--IPCC-Second-Assessment-Report.en.html},
	urldate = {2019-03-05}
}

@misc{noauthor_ipcc_nodate,
	title = {{IPCC} {Second} {Assessment} {Full} {Report} — {IPCC}},
	url = {https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ipcc-second-assessment-full-report/},
	urldate = {2019-03-05}
}

@article{reichler_how_2008,
	title = {How {Well} {Do} {Coupled} {Models} {Simulate} {Today}'s {Climate}?},
	volume = {89},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/BAMS-89-3-303},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-89-3-303},
	abstract = {Information about climate and how it responds to increased greenhouse gas concentrations depends heavily on insight gained from numerical simulations by coupled climate models. The confidence placed in quantitative estimates of the rate and magnitude of future climate change is therefore strongly related to the quality of these models. In this study, we test the realism of several generations of coupled climate models, including those used for the 1995, 2001, and 2007 reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). By validating against observations of present climate, we show that the coupled models have been steadily improving over time and that the best models are converging toward a level of accuracy that is similar to observation-based analyses of the atmosphere.},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Reichler, Thomas and Kim, Junsu},
	month = mar,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {303--312}
}

@article{rahmstorf_comparing_2012,
	title = {Comparing climate projections to observations up to 2011},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {1748-9326},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F7%2F4%2F044035},
	doi = {10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/044035},
	abstract = {We analyse global temperature and sea-level data for the past few decades and compare them to projections published in the third and fourth assessment reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The results show that global temperature continues to increase in good agreement with the best estimates of the IPCC, especially if we account for the effects of short-term variability due to the El Niño/Southern Oscillation, volcanic activity and solar variability. The rate of sea-level rise of the past few decades, on the other hand, is greater than projected by the IPCC models. This suggests that IPCC sea-level projections for the future may also be biased low.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Environmental Research Letters},
	author = {Rahmstorf, Stefan and Foster, Grant and Cazenave, Anny},
	month = nov,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {044035}
}

@article{frame_assessment_2013,
	title = {Assessment of the first consensus prediction on climate change},
	volume = {3},
	copyright = {2012 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {1758-6798},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1763},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate1763},
	abstract = {In 1990, climate scientists from around the world wrote the First Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. It contained a prediction of the global mean temperature trend over the 1990–2030 period that, halfway through that period, seems accurate. This is all the more remarkable in hindsight, considering that a number of important external forcings were not included. So how did this success arise? In the end, the greenhouse-gas-induced warming is largely overwhelming the other forcings, which are only of secondary importance on the 20-year timescale.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Frame, David J. and Stone, Dáithí A.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {357--359}
}

@misc{noauthor_global_nodate,
	title = {Global climate changes as forecast by {Goddard} {Institute} for {Space} {Studies} three‐dimensional model - {Hansen} - 1988 - {Journal} of {Geophysical} {Research}: {Atmospheres} - {Wiley} {Online} {Library}},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JD093iD08p09341},
	urldate = {2019-03-05}
}

@article{gleckler_performance_2008,
	title = {Performance metrics for climate models},
	volume = {113},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2007JD008972},
	doi = {10.1029/2007JD008972},
	abstract = {Objective measures of climate model performance are proposed and used to assess simulations of the 20th century, which are available from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP3) archive. The primary focus of this analysis is on the climatology of atmospheric fields. For each variable considered, the models are ranked according to a measure of relative error. Based on an average of the relative errors over all fields considered, some models appear to perform substantially better than others. Forming a single index of model performance, however, can be misleading in that it hides a more complex picture of the relative merits of different models. This is demonstrated by examining individual variables and showing that the relative ranking of models varies considerably from one variable to the next. A remarkable exception to this finding is that the so-called ?mean model? consistently outperforms all other models in nearly every respect. The usefulness, limitations and robustness of the metrics defined here are evaluated 1) by examining whether the information provided by each metric is correlated in any way with the others, and 2) by determining how sensitive the metrics are to such factors as observational uncertainty, spatial scale, and the domain considered (e.g., tropics versus extra-tropics). An index that gauges the fidelity of model variability on interannual time-scales is found to be only weakly correlated with an index of the mean climate performance. This illustrates the importance of evaluating a broad spectrum of climate processes and phenomena since accurate simulation of one aspect of climate does not guarantee accurate representation of other aspects. Once a broad suite of metrics has been developed to characterize model performance it may become possible to identify optimal subsets for various applications.},
	number = {D6},
	urldate = {2019-03-05},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Gleckler, P. J. and Taylor, K. E. and Doutriaux, C.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2008},
	keywords = {Performance metrics, climate models, model evaluation}
}

@article{russell_coupled_1995,
	title = {A coupled atmosphere‐ocean model for transient climate change studies},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {0705-5900},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.1995.9649550},
	doi = {10.1080/07055900.1995.9649550},
	abstract = {A new coupled atmosphere‐ocean model has been developed for climate predictions at decade to century scales. The atmospheric model is similar to that of Hansen et al. (1983) except that the atmospheric dynamic equations for mass and momentum are solved using Arakawa and Lamb's (1977) C grid scheme and the advection of potential enthalpy and water vapour uses the linear upstream scheme (Russell and Lerner, 1981). The new global ocean model conserves mass, allows for divergent flow, has a free surface and uses the linear upstream scheme for the advection of potential enthalpy and salt. Both models run at 4° × 5° resolution, with 9 vertical layers for the atmosphere and 13 layers for the ocean. Twelve straits are included, allowing for subgrid‐scale water flow. Runoff from land is routed into appropriate ocean basins. Atmospheric and oceanic surface fluxes are of opposite sign and are applied synchronously. Flux adjustments are not used. Except for partial strength alternating binomial filters (Shapiro, 1970), which are applied to the momentum components in the atmosphere and oceans, there is no explicit horizontal diffusion. A 120‐year simulation of the coupled model starting from the oceanic initial conditions of Levitus (1982) is discussed. The model dynamics stabilize after several decades. The maximum northward ocean heat flux is 1.4 × 1015 W at 16°N. The model appears to maintain the vertical gradients characterizing the separation between the upper and deep ocean spheres. Inadequacies in the coupled model simulation lead to decreasing temperature and salinity in the high latitude North Atlantic and to a poor simulation of the northern North Atlantic thermohaline circulation. The mass transport of the Gulf Stream is about half of observed values, while the transports of the Kuroshio and Antarctic Circumpolar Currents are similar to observations. Additional deficiencies include a climate drift in the surface air temperature of 0.006°C year‐1 due to a radiation imbalance of 7.4 Wm‐2 at the top of the atmosphere and too warm temperatures in the eastern portions of tropical oceans. The coupled model should be useful for delineating modelling capabilities without the use of flux adjustments and should serve as a benchmark for future model improvements.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Atmosphere-Ocean},
	author = {Russell, Gary L. and Miller, James R. and Rind, David},
	month = dec,
	year = {1995},
	pages = {683--730}
}

@article{washington_climate_1989,
	title = {Climate sensitivity due to increased {CO2}: experiments with a coupled atmosphere and ocean general circulation model},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {1432-0894},
	shorttitle = {Climate sensitivity due to increased {CO2}},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00207397},
	doi = {10.1007/BF00207397},
	abstract = {A version of the National Center for Atmospheric Research community climate model — a global, spectral (R15) general circulation model — is coupled to a coarse-grid (5° latitude-] longitude, four-layer) ocean general circulation model to study the response of the climate system to increases of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Three simulations are run: one with an instantaneous doubling of atmospheric CO2 (from 330 to 660 ppm), another with the CO2 concentration starting at 330 ppm and increasing linearly at a rate of 1\% per year, and a third with CO2 held constant at 330 pm. Results at the end of 30 years of simulation indicate a globally averaged surface air temperature increase of 1.6° C for the instantaneous doubling case and 0.7°C for the transient forcing case. Inherent characteristics of the coarse-grid ocean model flow sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) in the tropics and higher-than-observed SSTs and reduced sea-ice extent at higher latitudes] produce lower sensitivity in this model after 30 years than in earlier simulations with the same atmosphere coupled to a 50-m, slab-ocean mixed layer. Within the limitations of the simulated meridional overturning, the thermohaline circulation weakens in the coupled model with doubled CO2 as the high-latitude ocean-surface layer warms and freshens and westerly wind stress is decreased. In the transient forcing case with slowly increasing CO2 (30\% increase after 30 years), the zonal mean warming of the ocean is most evident in the surface layer near 30°–50° S. Geographical plots of surface air temperature change in the transient case show patterns of regional climate anomalies that differ from those in the instantaneous CO2 doubling case, particularly in the North Atlantic and northern European regions. This suggests that differences in CO2 forcing in the climate system are important in CO2 response in regard to time-dependent climate anomaly regimes. This confirms earlier studies with simple climate models that instantaneous CO2 doubling simulations may not be analogous in all respects to simulations with slowly increasing CO2.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Washington, Warren M. and Meehl, Gerald A.},
	month = jun,
	year = {1989},
	keywords = {Community Climate Model, Ocean General Circulation Model, Research Community Climate, Simple Climate Model, Westerly Wind Stress},
	pages = {1--38}
}

@techreport{tokioka_transient_1996,
	title = {A transient {CO}$_{\textrm{2}}$ experiment with the {MRI} {CGCM} - {Annual} mean response},
	url = {http://inis.iaea.org/Search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:39063264},
	language = {English},
	number = {CGER--1022-96},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	institution = {National Institute for Environmental Studies},
	author = {Tokioka, T. and Noda, A. and Kitoh, A. and Nikaidou, Y. and Nakagawa, S. and Motoi, T. and Yukimoto, S. and Takata, K.},
	year = {1996}
}

@misc{noauthor_coupled_nodate,
	title = {A coupled atmosphere‐ocean model for transient climate change studies: {Atmosphere}-{Ocean}: {Vol} 33, {No} 4},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07055900.1995.9649550},
	urldate = {2019-02-28}
}

@article{murphy_transient_1995,
	title = {Transient {Response} of the {Hadley} {Centre} {Coupled} {Ocean}-{Atmosphere} {Model} to {Increasing} {Carbon} {Dioxide}. {Part} {II}: {Spatial} and {Temporal} {Structure} of {Response}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	shorttitle = {Transient {Response} of the {Hadley} {Centre} {Coupled} {Ocean}-{Atmosphere} {Model} to {Increasing} {Carbon} {Dioxide}. {Part} {II}},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/1520-0442%281995%29008%3C0057%3ATROTHC%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0442(1995)008<0057:TROTHC>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {A high-resolution (2.75° lat × ° 3.75° long) coupled ocean-atmosphere model has been used to simulate the transient response of climate to a gradual increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Although the radiative forcing increases linearly, there is a delay of about 30 yr before the ocean warms appreciably. This “cold start” is, at least partly, an artifact of the experimental design. At the time of doubling (after 70 yr), the patterns of change are similar to those found in comparable studies of the equilibrium response, except in the high latitudes of the Southern Ocean and the North Atlantic, where the warming is considerably reduced. The mechanisms leading to this reduction are discussed. After two to three decades, the pattern of warming is well established. The warming over land is substantially larger than that over the sea, with a consequent lowering of surface pressure over the northern continents in summer. The patterns of changes in precipitation and soil moisture take longer to establish themselves, although locally there are consistent changes after the third decade.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Murphy, J. M. and Mitchell, J. F. B.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1995},
	pages = {57--80}
}

@article{murphy_transient_1995-1,
	title = {Transient {Response} of the {Hadley} {Centre} {Coupled} {Ocean}-{Atmosphere} {Model} to {Increasing} {Carbon} {Dioxide}. {Part} 1: {Control} {Climate} and {Flux} {Adjustment}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	shorttitle = {Transient {Response} of the {Hadley} {Centre} {Coupled} {Ocean}-{Atmosphere} {Model} to {Increasing} {Carbon} {Dioxide}. {Part} 1},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0442%281995%29008%3C0036%3ATROTHC%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0442(1995)008<0036:TROTHC>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {This paper describes the initialization of an experiment to study the time-dependent response of a high-resolution global coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation model to a gradual increase in carbon dioxide. The stability of the control integration with respect to climate drift is assessed, and aspects of the model climatology relevant to the simulation of climate change are discussed. The observed variation of oceanic temperature with latitude and depth is basically well simulated, although, in common with other ocean models, the main thermocline is too diffuse. Nevertheless, it is found that large heat and water flux adjustments must be added to the surface layer of the ocean in order to prevent the occurrence of unacceptable climate drift. The ocean model appears to achieve insufficient meridional heat transport, and this is supported by the pattern of the heat flux adjustment term, although errors in the simulated atmosphere-ocean heat flux also contribute to the latter. The application of the flux adjustments restricts climate drift during the 75-year control experiment. However, a gradual warming still occurs in the surface layers of the Southern Ocean because the flux adjustments are inserted as additive terms in this integration and cannot therefore be guaranteed to prevent climate drift completely.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Murphy, J. M.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1995},
	pages = {36--56}
}

@article{manabe_transient_1991,
	title = {Transient {Responses} of a {Coupled} {Ocean}–{Atmosphere} {Model} to {Gradual} {Changes} of {Atmospheric} {CO2}. {Part} {I}. {Annual} {Mean} {Response}},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/1520-0442%281991%29004%3C0785%3ATROACO%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0442(1991)004<0785:TROACO>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {This study investigates the response of a climate model to a gradual increase or decrease of atmospheric carbon dioxide. The model is a general circulation model of the coupled atmosphere-ocean-land surface system with global geography and seasonal variation of insulation. To offset the bias of the coupled model toward settling into an unrealistic state, the fluxes of heat and water at the ocean-atmosphere interface are adjusted by amounts that vary with season and geography but do not change from one year to the next. Starting from a quasi-equilibrium climate, three numerical time integrations of the coupled model are performed with gradually increasing, constant, and gradually decreasing concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is noted that the simulated response of sea surface temperature is very slow over the northern North Atlantic and the Circumpolar Ocean of the Southern Hemisphere where vertical mixing of water penetrates very deeply. However, in most of the Northern Hemisphere and low latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, the distribution of the change in surface air temperature of the model at the time of doubling (or halving) of atmospheric carbon dioxide resembles the equilibrium response of an atmospheric-mixed layer ocean model to CO2 doubling (or halving). For example, the rise of annual mean surface air temperature in response to the gradual increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide increases with latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere and is larger over continents than oceans. When the time-dependent response of the model oceans to the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide is compared with the corresponding response to the CO2, reduction at an identical rate, the penetration of the cold anomaly in the latter case is significantly deeper than that of the warm anomaly in the former case. The lack of symmetry in the penetration depth of a thermal anomaly between the two cases is associated with the difference in static stability, which is due mainly to the change in the vertical distribution of salinity in high latitudes and temperature changes in middle and low latitudes. Despite the difference in penetration depth and accordingly, the effective thermal inertia of the oceans between the two experiments, the time-dependent response of the global mean surface air temperature in the CO2 reduction experiment is similar in magnitude to the corresponding response in the CO2 growth experiment. In the former experiment with a colder climate, snow and sea ice with high surface albedo cover a much larger area, thereby enhancing their positive feedback effect upon surface air temperature. On the other hand, surface cooling is reduced due to the larger effective thermal inertia of the oceans. Because of the compensation between these two effects, the magnitude of surface air temperature response turned out to be similar between the two experiments.},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Manabe, S. and Stouffer, R. J. and Spelman, M. J. and Bryan, K.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1991},
	pages = {785--818}
}

@article{hasselmann_detection_1995,
	title = {Detection of anthropogenic climate change using a fingerprint method},
	url = {https://pure.mpg.de/pubman/faces/ViewItemOverviewPage.jsp?itemId=item_2534307},
	doi = {10.17617/2.2534307},
	abstract = {Author: Hasselmann, Klaus F. et al.; Genre: Paper; Published in Print: 1995-07; Open Access; Title: Detection of anthropogenic climate change using a fingerprint method},
	language = {eng},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	author = {Hasselmann, Klaus F. and Bengtsson, Lennart and Cubasch, Ulrich and Hegerl, Gabriele C. and Rodhe, Henning and Roeckner, Erich and von Storch, Hans and Voss, Reinhard and Waszkewitz, Jürgen},
	month = jul,
	year = {1995}
}

@article{cubasch_time-dependent_1992,
	title = {Time-dependent greenhouse warming computations with a coupled ocean-atmosphere model},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1432-0894},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00209163},
	doi = {10.1007/BF00209163},
	abstract = {Climate changes during the next 100 years caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases have been simulated for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Scenarios A (“business as usual”) and D (“accelerated policies”) using a coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation model. In the global average, the near-surface temperature rises by 2.6 K in Scenario A and by 0.6 K in Scenario D. The global patterns of climate change for both IPCC scenarios and for a third step-function 2 x CO2 experiment were found to be very similar. The warming delay over the oceans is larger than found in simulations with atmospheric general circulation models coupled to mixed-layer models, leading to a more pronounced land-sea contrast and a weaker warming (and in some regions even an initial cooling) in the Southern Ocean. During the first forty years, the global warming and sea level rise due to the thermal expansion of the ocean are significantly slower than estimated previously from box-diffusion-upwelling models, but the major part of this delay can be attributed to the previous warming history prior to the start of present coupled ocean-atmosphere model integration (cold start).},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Cubasch, Ulrich and Hasselmann, Klaus and Höck, Heinke and Maier-Reimer, Ernst and Mikolajewicz, Uwe and Santer, Benjamin D. and Sausen, Robert},
	month = dec,
	year = {1992},
	keywords = {Atmospheric General Circulation Model, Cold Start, General Circulation Model, Greenhouse Warming, Weak Warming},
	pages = {55--69}
}

@article{colman_non-flux_1995,
	title = {A non-flux corrected transient {CO2} experiment using the {BMRC} {Coupled} {Atmosphere}/{Ocean} {GCM}},
	volume = {22},
	copyright = {Copyright 1995 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/95GL01727},
	doi = {10.1029/95GL01727},
	abstract = {A transient CO2 experiment has been performed with the BMRC coupled atmosphere ocean General Circulation Model (GCM). No flux corrections were used in the experiment. A roughly linear temporal increase in global surface temperature is found in response to the CO2 increase. The rate of increase is consistent with the (relatively low) equilibrium response found previously using the Atmospheric GCM and a simple ocean. Ocean surface temperatures increase more at mid latitudes than at high northern or southern latitudes where heat is sequestered into the deep ocean. Despite the secular climate drift which occurs in the model, the major patterns of atmospheric and oceanic temperature change are similar to changes noted elsewhere (from flux corrected models). This adds further support to the main conclusions drawn from transient CO2 experiments performed elsewhere with coupled GCMs.},
	language = {en},
	number = {22},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Colman, R. A. and Power, S. B. and McAvaney, B. J. and Dahni, R. R.},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {3047--3050}
}

@article{boer_dynamical_1995,
	title = {Some dynamical consequences of {Greenhouse} gas warming},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {0705-5900},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.1995.9649551},
	doi = {10.1080/07055900.1995.9649551},
	abstract = {The change in December‐February climate simulated by the CCC GCM for a doubling of CO2 is viewed from a Northern Hemisphere middle‐latitude persepctive. The simulated change in temperature is such as to reduce equator‐to‐pole and ocean‐to‐land temperature gradients in the body of the troposphere and this is expected to result in less baroclinicity and baroclinic instability, weaker eddies and transports and generally to a decrease in synoptic activity or, in other words, to more “summer‐like” conditions. The overall “rate of working” of the atmosphere, as measured by the generation of available potential energy, its conversion to kinetic energy and subsequent dissipation, decreases by some 12\%. However, while the amount of available potential energy in the atmosphere decreases by about the same amount, the amount of kinetic energy is unchanged. Differences to the mean zonal, standing and transient eddy components of available potential and kinetic energies and to their rates of generation and conversion show that the energy cycle has changed in ways that might not be immediately expected. Despite the general decrease in activity, the net poleward transport of energy by the atmosphere is remarkably unchanged. This is accomplished with the expected decrease in the transport of dry static energy being off‐set by an increase in latent energy transport. This is true both for mean zonal and eddy transports. That the same amount of energy is transported by a generally less active atmosphere shows that, in a sense, the flow structures are more “efficient” in the warmer climate and calculations are made to quantify this. The transport of energy in latent form is much more efficient due to the strong increase in moisture content that accompanies the temperature increase.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Atmosphere-Ocean},
	author = {Boer, G. J.},
	month = dec,
	year = {1995},
	pages = {731--751}
}

@article{boer_results_1992,
	title = {Some results from an intercomparison of the climates simulated by 14 atmospheric general circulation models},
	volume = {97},
	copyright = {Copyright 1992 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/92JD00722},
	doi = {10.1029/92JD00722},
	abstract = {Some climatological information from 14 atmospheric general circulation models is presented and compared in order to assess the ability of a broad group of models to simulate current climate. The quantities considered are cross sections of temperature, zonal wind, and meridional stream function together with latitudinal distributions of mean sea level pressure and precipitation rate. The nature of the deficiencies in the simulated climates that are common to all models and those which differ among models is investigated; the general improvement in the ability of models to simulate certain aspects of the climate is shown; consideration is given to the effect of increasing resolution on simulated climate; and approaches to understanding and reducing model deficiencies are discussed. The information presented here is a subset of a more voluminous compilation which is available in report form (Boer et al., 1991). This report contains essentially the same text, but results from all 14 models are presented together with additional results in the form of geographical distributions of surface variables and certain difference statistics.},
	language = {en},
	number = {D12},
	urldate = {2019-02-28},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Boer, G. J. and Arpe, K. and Blackburn, M. and Déqué, M. and Gates, W. L. and Hart, T. L. and Treut, H. le and Roeckner, E. and Sheinin, D. A. and Simmonds, I. and Smith, R. N. B. and Tokioka, T. and Wetherald, R. T. and Williamson, D.},
	year = {1992},
	pages = {12771--12786}
}

@misc{noauthor_results_nodate,
	title = {Some results from an intercomparison of the climates simulated by 14 atmospheric general circulation models - {Boer} - 1992 - {Journal} of {Geophysical} {Research}: {Atmospheres} - {Wiley} {Online} {Library}},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/92JD00722},
	urldate = {2019-02-28}
}

@article{zhang_abrupt_2017,
	title = {Abrupt {North} {Atlantic} circulation changes in response to gradual {CO2} forcing in a glacial climate state},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/ngeo2974},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2974},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Zhang, Xu and Knorr, Gregor and Lohmann, Gerrit and Barker, Stephen},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {518--523}
}

@article{zhang_oceanic_2014,
	title = {Oceanic mass transport by mesoscale eddies},
	volume = {345},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.1252418},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1252418},
	language = {en},
	number = {6194},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Zhang, Z. and Wang, W. and Qiu, B.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {322--324}
}

@article{zerkle_onset_2017,
	title = {Onset of the aerobic nitrogen cycle during the {Great} {Oxidation} {Event}},
	volume = {542},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature20826},
	doi = {10.1038/nature20826},
	language = {en},
	number = {7642},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Zerkle, Aubrey L. and Poulton, Simon W. and Newton, Robert J. and Mettam, Colin and Claire, Mark W. and Bekker, Andrey and Junium, Christopher K.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {465--467}
}

@article{zanna_optimal_2011,
	title = {Optimal {Excitation} of {Interannual} {Atlantic} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation} {Variability}},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JCLI3610.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JCLI3610.1},
	abstract = {The optimal excitation of Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC) anomalies is investigated in an ocean general circulation model with an idealized configuration. The optimal three-dimensional spatial structure of temperature and salinity perturbations, defined as the leading singular vector and generating the maximum amplification of MOC anomalies, is evaluated by solving a generalized eigenvalue problem using tangent linear and adjoint models. Despite the stable linearized dynamics, a large amplification of MOC anomalies, mostly due to the interference of nonnormal modes, is initiated by the optimal perturbations.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Zanna, Laure and Heimbach, Patrick and Moore, Andrew M. and Tziperman, Eli},
	month = jan,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {413--427}
}

@article{youngs_acc_2017,
	title = {{ACC} {Meanders}, {Energy} {Transfer}, and {Mixed} {Barotropic}–{Baroclinic} {Instability}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0160.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0160.1},
	abstract = {Along-stream variations in the dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) impact heat and tracer transport, regulate interbasin exchange, and influence closure of the overturning circulation. Topography is primarily responsible for generating deviations from zonal-mean properties, mainly through standing meanders associated with regions of high eddy kinetic energy. Here, an idealized channel model is used to explore the spatial distribution of energy exchange and its relationship to eddy geometry, as characterized by both eddy momentum and eddy buoyancy fluxes. Variations in energy exchange properties occur not only between standing meander and quasi-zonal jet regions, but throughout the meander itself. Both barotropic and baroclinic stability properties, as well as the magnitude of energy exchange terms, undergo abrupt changes along the path of the ACC. These transitions are captured by diagnosing eddy fluxes of energy and by adopting the eddy geometry framework. The latter, typically applied to barotropic stability properties, is applied here in the depth–along-stream plane to include information about both barotropic and baroclinic stability properties of the flow. These simulations reveal that eddy momentum fluxes, and thus barotropic instability, play a leading role in the energy budget within a standing meander. This result suggests that baroclinic instability alone cannot capture the dynamics of ACC standing meanders, a challenge for models where eddy fluxes are parameterized.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Youngs, Madeleine K. and Thompson, Andrew F. and Lazar, Ayah and Richards, Kelvin J.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {1291--1305}
}

@article{yan_role_2017,
	title = {The role of {Atlantic} overturning circulation in the recent decline of {Atlantic} major hurricane frequency},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-01377-8},
	doi = {10.1038/s41467-017-01377-8},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Communications},
	author = {Yan, Xiaoqin and Zhang, Rong and Knutson, Thomas R.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2017}
}

@article{wunsch_oceanography:_2002,
	title = {{OCEANOGRAPHY}: {What} {Is} the {Thermohaline} {Circulation}?},
	volume = {298},
	issn = {00368075, 10959203},
	shorttitle = {{OCEANOGRAPHY}},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.1079329},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1079329},
	language = {en},
	number = {5596},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Wunsch, C.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {1179--1181}
}

@article{wolfe_multiple_2015,
	title = {Multiple {Regimes} and {Low}-{Frequency} {Variability} in the {Quasi}-{Adiabatic} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-14-0095.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-14-0095.1},
	abstract = {When interior mixing is weak, the ocean can support an interhemispheric overturning circulation on isopycnals that outcrop in both the Northern Hemisphere and a high-latitude southern circumpolar channel. This overturning cell participates in a salt–advection feedback that counteracts the precipitation-induced surface freshening of the northern high latitudes. The net result is an increase in the range of isopycnals shared between the two hemispheres, which strengthens the overturning circulation. However, if precipitation in the Northern Hemisphere sufficiently exceeds that in the Southern Hemisphere, the overturning cell collapses and is replaced by a cell circulating in the opposite direction, whose southern end point is equatorward of the channel. This reversed cell is shallower and weaker than its forward counterpart and is maintained diffusively. For a limited range of parameters, freshwater hysteresis occurs and multiple overturning regimes are found for the same forcing. These multiple regimes are, by definition, unstable with regard to finite-amplitude disturbances, since a sufficiently large perturbation can affect a transition from one regime to the other. Both overturning regimes show pronounced, nearly periodic thermohaline variability on multidecadal and multicentennial time scales. The multidecadal oscillation is expressed in the North Hemisphere gyre and driven by a surface thermohaline instability. The multicentennial oscillation has the character of an interhemispheric loop oscillation. These oscillations mediate transitions between overturning regimes by providing an internal source of finite-amplitude disturbances. As the diffusivity is reduced, the reverse cell becomes weaker and thus less stable to a given perturbation amplitude. This causes the width of the hysteresis to decrease with decreasing diffusivity.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Wolfe, Christopher L. and Cessi, Paola},
	month = jun,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {1690--1708}
}

@article{witze_climate_2012,
	title = {Climate change confirmed... again},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1355},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo1355},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Witze, Alexandra},
	month = jan,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {4--4}
}

@article{wolfe_what_2010,
	title = {What {Sets} the {Strength} of the {Middepth} {Stratification} and {Overturning} {Circulation} in {Eddying} {Ocean} {Models}?},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JPO4393.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JPO4393.1},
	abstract = {The processes maintaining stratification in the oceanic middepth (between approximately 1000 and 3000 m) are explored using an eddy-resolving general circulation model composed of a two-hemisphere, semienclosed basin with a zonal reentrant channel in the southernmost eighth of the domain. The middepth region lies below the wind-driven main thermocline but above the diffusively driven abyssal ocean. Here, it is argued that middepth stratification is determined primarily in the model’s Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Competition between mean and eddy overturning in the channel leads to steeper isotherms and thus deeper stratification throughout the basin than would exist without the channel. Isotherms that outcrop only in the channel are nearly horizontal in the semienclosed portion of the domain, whereas isotherms that also outcrop in the Northern Hemisphere deviate from horizontal and are accompanied by geostrophically balanced meridional transport. A northern source of deep water (water with temperatures in the range of those in the channel) leads to the formation of a thick middepth thermostad. Changes in wind forcing over the channel influence the stratification throughout the domain. Since the middepth stratification is controlled by adiabatic dynamics in the channel, it becomes independent of the interior diffusivity k as k / 0. The meridional overturning circulation (MOC), as diagnosed by the mean meridional volume transport, also shows a tendency to become independent of k as k / 0, whereas the MOC diagnosed by water mass transport shows a continuing dependence on k as k / 0. A nonlocal scaling for MOC is developed that relates the strength of the northern MOC to the depth of isotherms in the southern channel. The results of this paper compare favorably to observations of large-scale neutral density in the World Ocean.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Wolfe, Christopher L. and Cessi, Paola},
	month = jul,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {1520--1538}
}

@article{wilhelmus_observations_2014,
	title = {Observations of large-scale fluid transport by laser-guided plankton aggregations},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1070-6631, 1089-7666},
	url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.4895655},
	doi = {10.1063/1.4895655},
	language = {en},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Physics of Fluids},
	author = {Wilhelmus, Monica M. and Dabiri, John O.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {101302}
}

@article{waugh_changes_2014,
	title = {Changes in the ventilation of the southern oceans},
	volume = {372},
	issn = {1364-503X, 1471-2962},
	url = {http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/cgi/doi/10.1098/rsta.2013.0269},
	doi = {10.1098/rsta.2013.0269},
	language = {en},
	number = {2019},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences},
	author = {Waugh, D. W.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {20130269--20130269}
}

@article{waugh_age_2002,
	title = {Age of stratospheric air: {Theory}, observations, and models},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {8755-1209},
	shorttitle = {Age of stratospheric air},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2000RG000101},
	doi = {10.1029/2000RG000101},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Waugh, Darryn},
	year = {2002}
}

@article{watson_southern_2015,
	title = {Southern {Ocean} buoyancy forcing of ocean ventilation and glacial atmospheric {CO2}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2538},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2538},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Watson, Andrew J. and Vallis, Geoffrey K. and Nikurashin, Maxim},
	month = nov,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {861--864}
}

@article{waterhouse_internal_2017,
	title = {Internal {Tide} {Convergence} and {Mixing} in a {Submarine} {Canyon}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0073.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0073.1},
	abstract = {Observations from Eel Canyon, located on the north coast of California, show that elevated turbulence in the full water column arises from the convergence of remotely generated internal wave energy. The incoming semidiurnal and bottom-trapped diurnal internal tides generate complex interference patterns. The semidiurnal internal tide sets up a partly standing wave within the canyon due to reflection at the canyon head, dissipating all of its energy within the canyon. Dissipation in the near bottom is associated with the diurnal trapped tide, while midwater isopycnal shear and strain is associated with the semidiurnal tide. Dissipation is elevated up to 600 m off the bottom, in contrast to observations over the flat continental shelf where dissipation occurs closer to the topography. Slope canyons are sinks for internal wave energy and may have important influences on the global distribution of tidally driven mixing.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Waterhouse, Amy F. and Mackinnon, Jennifer A. and Musgrave, Ruth C. and Kelly, Samuel M. and Pickering, Andy and Nash, Jonathan},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {303--322}
}

@article{watson_southern_2014,
	title = {The {Southern} {Ocean}, carbon and climate},
	volume = {372},
	issn = {1364-503X, 1471-2962},
	url = {http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/cgi/doi/10.1098/rsta.2013.0057},
	doi = {10.1098/rsta.2013.0057},
	language = {en},
	number = {2019},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences},
	author = {Watson, A. J. and Meredith, M. P. and Marshall, J.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {20130057--20130057}
}
@article{wang_impact_2017,
	title = {Impact of {Tidal} {Mixing} on {Water} {Mass} {Transformation} and {Circulation} in the {South} {China} {Sea}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0171.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0171.1},
	abstract = {Using a high-resolution regional ocean model, the impact of tidal mixing on water mass transformation and circulation in the South China Sea (SCS) is investigated through a set of numerical experiments with different configurations of tide-induced diapycnal diffusivity. The results show that including tidal mixing in both the Luzon Strait (LS) and SCS has significant impact on the LS transport and the intermediate–deep layer circulation in the SCS Basin. Analysis of the density field indicates that tidal mixing in both the LS and SCS are essential for sustaining a consistent density gradient and thus a persistent outward-directed baroclinic pressure gradient both between the western Pacific and LS and between the LS and SCS Basin, so as to maintain the strong deep-water transport through the LS. Further analysis of water mass properties suggests that tidal mixing in the deep SCS would strengthen the horizontal density gradient, intensify the basin-scale cyclonic circulation, induce more vigorous overturning, as well as generate the subbasin-scale eddies in the abyssal SCS. The results imply that tidal mixing in both the LS and SCS plays a key dynamic role in controlling water mass properties and deep circulation features in the SCS and thus need to be deliberately parameterized in ocean circulation models for this region.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Wang, Xiaowei and Liu, Zhiyu and Peng, Shiqiu},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {419--432}
}

@article{waliser_extreme_2017,
	title = {Extreme winds and precipitation during landfall of atmospheric rivers},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2894},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2894},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Waliser, Duane and Guan, Bin},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {179--183}
}

@article{viglione_lagrangian_2016,
	title = {Lagrangian pathways of upwelling in the {Southern} {Ocean}: {SOUTHERN} {OCEAN} {LAGRANGIAN} {UPWELLING}},
	volume = {121},
	issn = {21699275},
	shorttitle = {Lagrangian pathways of upwelling in the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2016JC011773},
	doi = {10.1002/2016JC011773},
	abstract = {The spatial and temporal variability of upwelling into the mixed layer in the Southern Ocean is studied using a 1/10  ocean general circulation model. Virtual drifters are released in a regularly spaced pattern across the Southern Ocean at depths of 250, 500, and 1000 m during both summer and winter months. The drifters are advected along isopycnals for a period of 4 years, unless they outcrop into the mixed layer, where lateral advection and a parameterization of vertical mixing are applied. The focus of this study is on the discrete exchange between the model mixed layer and the interior. Localization of interior-mixed layer exchange occurs downstream of major topographic features across the Indian and Pacific basins, creating ‘‘hotspots’’ of outcropping. Minimal outcropping occurs in the Atlantic basin, while 59\% of drifters outcrop in the Pacific sector and in Drake Passage (the region from 140  W to 40  W), a disproportionately large amount even when considering the relative basin sizes. Due to spatial and temporal variations in mixed layer depth, the Lagrangian trajectories provide a statistical measure of mixed layer residence times. For each exchange into the mixed layer, the residence time has a Rayleigh distribution with a mean of 30 days; the cumulative residence time of the drifters is 261 6 194 days, over a period of 4 years. These results suggest that certain oceanic gas concentrations, such as CO2 and 14C, will likely not reach equilibrium with the atmosphere before being resubducted.},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Viglione, Giuliana A. and Thompson, Andrew F.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {6295--6309}
}

@article{wahl_robustness_2007,
	title = {Robustness of the {Mann}, {Bradley}, {Hughes} reconstruction of {Northern} {Hemisphere} surface temperatures: {Examination} of criticisms based on the nature and processing of proxy climate evidence},
	volume = {85},
	issn = {0165-0009, 1573-1480},
	shorttitle = {Robustness of the {Mann}, {Bradley}, {Hughes} reconstruction of {Northern} {Hemisphere} surface temperatures},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10584-006-9105-7},
	doi = {10.1007/s10584-006-9105-7},
	language = {en},
	number = {1-2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Climatic Change},
	author = {Wahl, Eugene R. and Ammann, Caspar M.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {33--69}
}

@book{noauthor_ocean_2018,
	address = {New York, NY},
	title = {The ocean in motion},
	isbn = {978-3-319-71933-7},
	language = {en},
	publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg},
	year = {2018}
}

@article{vecchi_estimates_2008,
	title = {On {Estimates} of {Historical} {North} {Atlantic} {Tropical} {Cyclone} {Activity}*},
	volume = {21},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2008JCLI2178.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2008JCLI2178.1},
	abstract = {In this study, an estimate of the expected number of Atlantic tropical cyclones (TCs) that were missed by the observing system in the presatellite era (between 1878 and 1965) is developed. The significance of trends in both number and duration since 1878 is assessed and these results are related to estimated changes in sea surface temperature (SST) over the “main development region” (“MDR”). The sensitivity of the estimate of missed TCs to underlying assumptions is examined. According to the base case adjustment used in this study, the annual number of TCs has exhibited multidecadal variability that has strongly covaried with multidecadal variations in MDR SST, as has been noted previously. However, the linear trend in TC counts (1878–2006) is notably smaller than the linear trend in MDR SST, when both time series are normalized to have the same variance in their 5-yr running mean series. Using the base case adjustment for missed TCs leads to an 1878–2006 trend in the number of TCs that is weakly positive, though not statistically significant, with p ϳ 0.2. The estimated trend for 1900–2006 is highly significant (ϩϳ4.2 storms centuryϪ1) according to the results of this study. The 1900–2006 trend is strongly influenced by a minimum in 1910–30, perhaps artificially enhancing significance, whereas the 1878–2006 trend depends critically on high values in the late 1800s, where uncertainties are larger than during the 1900s. The trend in average TC duration (1878–2006) is negative and highly significant. Thus, the evidence for a significant increase in Atlantic storm activity over the most recent 125 yr is mixed, even though MDR SST has warmed significantly. The decreasing duration result is unexpected and merits additional exploration; duration statistics are more uncertain than those of storm counts. As TC formation, development, and track depend on a number of environmental factors, of which regional SST is only one, much work remains to be done to clarify the relationship between anthropogenic climate warming, the large-scale tropical environment, and Atlantic TC activity.},
	language = {en},
	number = {14},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Vecchi, Gabriel A. and Knutson, Thomas R.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {3580--3600}
}

@article{vallis_large-scale_2000,
	title = {Large-{Scale} {Circulation} and {Production} of {Stratification}: {Effects} of {Wind}, {Geometry}, and {Diffusion}},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	shorttitle = {Large-{Scale} {Circulation} and {Production} of {Stratification}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282000%29030%3C0933%3ALSCAPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2000)030<0933:LSCAPO>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The combined effects of wind, geometry, and diffusion on the stratification and circulation of the ocean are explored by numerical and analytical methods. In particular, the production of deep stratification in a simply configured numerical model with small diffusivity is explored.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Vallis, Geoffrey K.},
	month = may,
	year = {2000},
	pages = {933--954}
}

@article{umlauf_diapycnal_2011,
	title = {Diapycnal {Transport} and {Mixing} {Efficiency} in {Stratified} {Boundary} {Layers} near {Sloping} {Topography}},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JPO4438.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JPO4438.1},
	abstract = {The interaction of shear, stratification, and turbulence in boundary layers on sloping topography is investigated with the help of an idealized theoretical model, assuming uniform bottom slope and homogeneity in the upslope direction. It is shown theoretically that the irreversible vertical buoyancy flux generated in the boundary layer is directly proportional to the molecular destruction rate of small-scale buoyancy variance, which can be inferred, for example, from microstructure observations. Dimensional analysis of the equations shows that, for harmonic boundary layer forcing and no rotation, the problem is governed by three nondimensional parameters (slope angle, roughness number, and ratio of forcing and buoyancy frequencies). Solution of the equations with a second-moment closure model for the turbulent fluxes reveals the periodic generation of gravitationally unstable boundary layers during upslope flow, consistent with available observations. Investigation of the nondimensional parameter space with the help of this model illustrates a systematic increase of the bulk mixing efficiencies for (i) steep slopes and (ii) low-frequency forcing. Except for very steep slopes, mixing efficiencies are substantially smaller than the classical value of G 5 0.2.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Umlauf, Lars and Burchard, Hans},
	month = feb,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {329--345}
}

@article{tzedakis_simple_2017,
	title = {A simple rule to determine which insolation cycles lead to interglacials},
	volume = {542},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature21364},
	doi = {10.1038/nature21364},
	language = {en},
	number = {7642},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Tzedakis, P. C. and Crucifix, M. and Mitsui, T. and Wolff, E. W.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {427--432}
}

@article{trowbridge_dynamics_1998,
	title = {Dynamics of the {Bottom} {Boundary} {Layer} on the {Northern} {California} {Shelf}},
	volume = {28},
	abstract = {Time-series measurements of velocity, temperature, and conductivity on the northern California shelf during two winter seasons permit an observational test, in vertically integrated form, of a simple set of subinertial momentum and heat balances for the bottom boundary layer, which have resulted from recent theoretical work. These are 1) an along-isobath momentum equation that reduces to a classic Ekman balance; 2) a cross-isobath momentum equation in which the Ekman balance is modified by a buoyancy force caused by distortion of the isopycnal surfaces within the boundary layer; and 3) a heat balance in which variability of temperature is produced by cross-isobath advection. The measurements confirm the importance of buoyancy in the cross-isobath momentum equation, and, as has recently been predicted theoretically, they indicate that buoyancy is a dominant effect when the boundary layer is thick, which typically occurs during downwelling-favorable flows. An Ekman balance describes subinertial fluctuations in the along-isobath momentum equation with only moderate success. In contrast to idealizations made in most theoretical work, a buoyancy force caused by an along-isobath temperature gradient is as important as bottom stress in the mean along-isobath momentum equation, and alongisobath advection is as important as cross-isobath advection in the heat balance.},
	language = {en},
	journal = {JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY},
	author = {Trowbridge, J H and Lentz, S J},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {19}
}

@article{trenberth_earths_2014,
	title = {Earth’s {Energy} {Imbalance}},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00294.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00294.1},
	abstract = {Climate change from increased greenhouse gases arises from a global energy imbalance at the top of the atmosphere (TOA). TOA measurements of radiation from space can track changes over time but lack absolute accuracy. An inventory of energy storage changes shows that over 90\% of the imbalance is manifested as a rise in ocean heat content (OHC). Data from the Ocean Reanalysis System, version 4 (ORAS4), and other OHC-estimated rates of change are used to compare with model-based estimates of TOA energy imbalance [from the Community Climate System Model, version 4 (CCSM4)] and with TOA satellite measurements for the year 2000 onward. Most ocean-only OHC analyses extend to only 700-m depth, have large discrepancies among the rates of change of OHC, and do not resolve interannual variability adequately to capture ENSO and volcanic eruption effects, all aspects that are improved with assimilation of multivariate data. ORAS4 rates of change of OHC quantitatively agree with the radiative forcing estimates of impacts of the three major volcanic eruptions since 1960 (Mt. Agung, 1963; El Chicho n, 1982; and Mt. Pinatubo, 1991). The natural variability of the energy imbalance is substantial from month to month, associated with cloud and weather variations, and interannually mainly associated with ENSO, while the sun affects 15\% of the climate change signal on decadal time scales. All estimates (OHC and TOA) show that over the past decade the energy imbalance ranges between about 0.5 and 1 W m22. By using the full-depth ocean, there is a better overall accounting for energy, but discrepancies remain at interannual time scales between OHC- and TOA-based estimates, notably in 2008/09.},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Trenberth, Kevin E. and Fasullo, John T. and Balmaseda, Magdalena A.},
	month = may,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {3129--3144}
}

@article{toole_near-boundary_1997,
	title = {Near-boundary mixing above the flanks of a midlatitude seamount},
	volume = {102},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/96JC03160},
	doi = {10.1029/96JC03160},
	abstract = {Fine-scale velocity and density profile data with concurrent turbulent velocity and temperature dissipation estimates obtained above the flanks of Fieberling Guyot, a seamountin the easternNorth Pacific Ocean, are examined for evidenceof near-bottomboundarymixing. Fine-scaleshearand strain spectral levels were elevated over the flanks of the seamount in a 500-m-thick stratified layer abovethe bottom. The velocity shearwas horizontallyisotropic, dockwise and counterclockwise-with-depthsheaxspectral levels were comparable, and no significantcorrelationbetweenshearand strain wasobserved.Abovethe steepest bottom slopesneaxthe seamountsummit rim, excessvertical strain relative to shear wasobserved(as comparedto the backgroundinternalwavefield), suggestingthe presenceof high-frequencyinternal waves.Thesesignalsmay havebeenthe product of wavereflectionsfrom the steepflanksof the seamountand/or wavegeneration from tidal currentsflowing over the rough bottom. Associatedwith the enhanced shearsand strains were more frequent occurrencesof low 10-m Richardson number events,increasedoverturningscales,and laxgetestimatedturbulent eddy diffusivity relative to observations15 km or more from the seamount.In particular, turbulent diffusivityestimateisncreasefdrom0(0.1 x 10-4 m• s-•) in the oceaninteriorto 1- 5 x 10-4 m• s-• within500m vertically(1-3 kmhorizontallyo)ftheseamount flank. A simplegeometricscalingargumentsuggeststhat boundaxymixing of this intensityhasrelevanceto the large-scalecirculationat abyssaldepthswherea large fraction of the ocean waters is in closeproximity to the bottom.},
	language = {en},
	number = {C1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Toole, John M. and Schmitt, Raymond W. and Polzin, Kurt L. and Kunze, Eric},
	month = jan,
	year = {1997},
	pages = {947--959}
}

@article{toole_estimates_1994,
	title = {Estimates of {Diapycnal} {Mixing} in the {Abyssal} {Ocean}},
	volume = {264},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.264.5162.1120},
	doi = {10.1126/science.264.5162.1120},
	language = {en},
	number = {5162},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Toole, J. M. and Schmitt, R. W. and Polzin, K. L.},
	month = may,
	year = {1994},
	pages = {1120--1123}
}

@incollection{heimann_new_1993,
	address = {Berlin, Heidelberg},
	title = {New {Radiocarbon} {Constraints} on the {Upwelling} of {Abyssal} {Water} to the {Ocean}’s {Surface}},
	isbn = {978-3-642-84610-6 978-3-642-84608-3},
	url = {http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.1007/978-3-642-84608-3_14},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	booktitle = {The {Global} {Carbon} {Cycle}},
	publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg},
	author = {Toggweiler, J. R. and Samuels, B.},
	editor = {Heimann, Martin},
	year = {1993},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-642-84608-3_14},
	pages = {333--366}
}

@article{toggweiler_simulations_1989,
	title = {Simulations of radiocarbon in a coarse-resolution world ocean model: 1. {Steady} state prebomb distributions},
	volume = {94},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	shorttitle = {Simulations of radiocarbon in a coarse-resolution world ocean model},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC094iC06p08217},
	doi = {10.1029/JC094iC06p08217},
	language = {en},
	number = {C6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Toggweiler, J. R. and Dixon, K. and Bryan, K.},
	year = {1989},
	pages = {8217}
}

@article{toggweiler_effect_1995,
	title = {Effect of drake passage on the global thermohaline circulation},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {09670637},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/096706379500012U},
	doi = {10.1016/0967-0637(95)00012-U},
	abstract = {The Ekman divergence around Antarctica raises a large amount of deep water to the ocean’s surface. The regional Ekman transport moves the upwclled deep water northward out of the circumpolar zone. The divergence and northward surface drift combine, in effect, to remove deep water from the interior of the ocean. This wind-driven removal process is facilitated by a unique dynamic constraint operating in the latitude band containing Drake Passage. Through a simple model sensitivity experiment WCshow that the upwelling and removal of deep water in the circumpolar belt may be quantitatively related to the formation of new deep water in the northern North Atlantic. These results sho{\textbackslash}c that stronger winds in the south can induct more deep water formation in the north and more deep outflow through the South Atlantic. The fact that winds in the southern hemisphere might influence the formation of deep water in the North Atlantic brings into question long-standing notions about the forces that drive the ocean’s thermohaline circulation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers},
	author = {Toggweiler, J.R. and Samuels, B.},
	month = apr,
	year = {1995},
	pages = {477--500}
}

@article{thurnherr_boundary_2003,
	title = {Boundary {Mixing} and {Topographic} {Blocking} on the {Mid}-{Atlantic} {Ridge} in the {South} {Atlantic}*},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282003%2933%3C848%3ABMATBO%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2003)33<848:BMATBO>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {It is commonly observed in hydrographic sections crossing midocean ridges that the isopycnals on the ridge flanks slope downward toward the crests. Although the observed vertical scales of isopycnal dipping are not consistent with steady diffusive boundary layers on slopes, the cross-flank density gradients can nevertheless be caused by diapycnal mixing acting on timescales of several years. The corresponding pressure gradients are usually inferred to be associated with cyclonic along-flank flows. Recent observations of southward flow along the highly corrugated western flank of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near 20ЊS are inconsistent with this conceptual picture, however. Data from seven zonal cross-ridge sections and from four meridional along-ridge sections were used to analyze the hydrography on the flanks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between 2ЊN and 30ЊS. The majority of the hydrographic stations were occupied over deep cross-flank canyons, which extend over a total length of ϳ90 000 km in the tropical and subtropical South Atlantic alone. The dipping of the isopycnal surfaces on the western ridge flank in the Brazil Basin is largely restricted to the canyons, where flow along the flank is topographically blocked. The magnitudes of the blocked apparent along-ridge transports are typically of order 1 Sv (1 Sv ϵ 106 m3 sϪ1) with values as high as 3 Sv, implying important consequences for circulation studies with both forward and inverse models. In the southern Brazil Basin the horizontal density gradients immediately above the blocking topography are reversed—that is, the densities increase toward the crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, consistent with observations of southward flow along the flank. On the eastern flank in the Angola Basin there is a layer of crestward-increasing densities as well, but there it lies well above the ridge topography. Numerical solutions of the buoyancy equation indicate that the observed cross-flank density gradients of both signs are consistent with bottom-intensified diapycnal mixing, which causes a vertical buoyancy-flux dipole. Boundary mixing on slopes can therefore give rise to anticyclonic, as well as cyclonic, along-slope flows. The observed horizontal temperature and salinity gradients near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the South Atlantic cannot be accounted for by diapycnal mixing alone, on the other hand. The distributions of these properties are therefore largely determined by isopycnal processes.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Thurnherr, A. M. and Speer, K. G.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2003},
	pages = {848--862}
}

@article{thurnherr_vertical_2015,
	title = {Vertical kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation in the ocean: {VKE} {AND} {TURBULENCE} {IN} {THE} {OCEAN}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {00948276},
	shorttitle = {Vertical kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation in the ocean},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2015GL065043},
	doi = {10.1002/2015GL065043},
	language = {en},
	number = {18},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Thurnherr, A. M. and Kunze, E. and Toole, J. M. and St. Laurent, L. and Richards, K. J. and Ruiz-Angulo, A.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {7639--7647}
}

@article{thorpe_breaking_2010,
	title = {Breaking internal waves and turbulent dissipation},
	volume = {68},
	issn = {00222402, 15439542},
	url = {http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/xref?genre=article&issn=0022-2402&volume=68&issue=6&spage=851},
	doi = {10.1357/002224010796673876},
	abstract = {We explore what might be discovered about the breaking of progressive internal waves and the consequent mixing by following some of the methodologies and techniques used to study surface wave breaking. It is suggested that breaking is most likely to occur in wave groups, where the wave field is locally amplified. In a stratified fluid of uniform buoyancy frequency, N, the breaking regions of internal wave groups extend in approximately horizontal directions. Two classes of breaking, “convective overturn” and “shear instability,” are possible in progressive internal waves propagating in uniform stratification with no mean shear. Convective overturning and associated static instability occur at all wave frequencies, but only if the wave slope, s ϭ am, exceeds unity, where a is the wave amplitude and m is the vertical wavenumber. Self-induced shear instability may take place in waves with slopes s Ͻ 1, and therefore less than the slopes required for convective overturn, but only when a wave-related Richardson number is sufficiently small; to achieve this, the wave frequency must be close to the inertial frequency. Equations are derived to express the energy dissipated in breaking or the strength of breaking in terms of the characteristics of a breaking wave. A particular measure of breaking analogous to that used to quantify surface wave breaking is ⌳I(cb)dcb, the mean area of the fronts of breaking regions, projected onto the vertical and per unit volume, that are produced by internal breakers traveling at speeds between cb and cb ϩ dcb. Estimates are made of the values of ⌳I required to sustain a vertical eddy diffusion coefficient of K␳ ϭ 10Ϫ5 m2 sϪ1 through the breaking of internal waves of typical amplitude by convective overturn (with s Ͼ 1) and by the self-induced shear instability of near-inertial waves when s Ͻ 1. Values of ⌳I are of order 1.0 ϫ 10Ϫ2 mϪ1 (i.e., a vertical surface area of about 10 cm ϫ 10 cm in each cubic meter). The predictions are tested by using them to find the fraction of the water column in which turbulence occurs and by comparing the predicted values with existing observations. Additional theoretical studies and laboratory experiments are required to test the proposed analytical relations. Existing sea-going measurement techniques are reviewed and further observations are suggested to advance the understanding of breaking internal waves.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	author = {Thorpe, S. A.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {851--880}
}

@article{thorpe_statically_1994,
	title = {Statically unstable layers produced by overturning internal gravity waves},
	volume = {260},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S002211209400354X},
	doi = {10.1017/S002211209400354X},
	language = {en},
	number = {-1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Thorpe, S. A.},
	month = feb,
	year = {1994},
	pages = {333}
}

@article{thornalley_anomalously_2018,
	title = {Anomalously weak {Labrador} {Sea} convection and {Atlantic} overturning during the past 150 years},
	volume = {556},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0007-4},
	doi = {10.1038/s41586-018-0007-4},
	language = {en},
	number = {7700},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Thornalley, David J. R. and Oppo, Delia W. and Ortega, Pablo and Robson, Jon I. and Brierley, Chris M. and Davis, Renee and Hall, Ian R. and Moffa-Sanchez, Paola and Rose, Neil L. and Spooner, Peter T. and Yashayaev, Igor and Keigwin, Lloyd D.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {227--230}
}

@article{te_raa_instability_2002,
	title = {Instability of the {Thermohaline} {Ocean} {Circulation} on {Interdecadal} {Timescales}},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282002%29032%3C0138%3AIOTTOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032<0138:IOTTOC>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The stability of three-dimensional thermally driven ocean flows in a single hemispheric sector basin is investigated using techniques of numerical bifurcation theory. Under restoring conditions for the temperature, the flow is stable. However, when forced with the associated heat flux, an interdecadal oscillatory timescale instability appears. This occurs as a Hopf bifurcation when the horizontal mixing coefficient of heat is decreased. The physical mechanism of the oscillation is described by analyzing the potential energy changes of the perturbation flow near the Hopf bifurcation. In the relatively slow phase of the oscillation, a temperature anomaly propagates westward near the northern boundary on a background temperature gradient, thereby changing the perturbation zonal temperature gradient, with corresponding changes in meridional overturning. This is followed by a relatively fast phase in which the zonal overturning reacts to a change in sign of the perturbation meridional temperature gradient. The different responses of zonal and meridional overturning cause a phase difference between the effect of temperature and vertical velocity anomalies on the buoyancy work anomaly, the latter dominating the changes in potential energy. This phase difference eventually controls the timescale of the oscillation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {te Raa, Lianke A. and Dijkstra, Henk A.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {138--160}
}

@article{tarly_climate_nodate,
	title = {The {Climate} of the world of {Game} of {Thrones}},
	volume = {1},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	author = {Tarly, Samwell},
	pages = {9}
}

@article{tamsitt_transformation_2018,
	title = {Transformation of {Deep} {Water} {Masses} {Along} {Lagrangian} {Upwelling} {Pathways} in the {Southern} {Ocean}: {SOUTHERN} {OCEAN} {UPWELLING} {TRANSFORMATION}},
	volume = {123},
	issn = {21699275},
	shorttitle = {Transformation of {Deep} {Water} {Masses} {Along} {Lagrangian} {Upwelling} {Pathways} in the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2017JC013409},
	doi = {10.1002/2017JC013409},
	abstract = {Upwelling of northern deep waters in the Southern Ocean is fundamentally important for the closure of the global meridional overturning circulation and delivers carbon and nutrient-rich deep waters to the sea surface. We quantify water mass transformation along upwelling pathways originating in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific and ending at the surface of the Southern Ocean using Lagrangian trajectories in an eddy-permitting ocean state estimate. Recent related work shows that upwelling in the interior below about 400 m depth is localized at hot spots associated with major topographic features in the path of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, while upwelling through the surface layer is more broadly distributed. In the ocean interior upwelling is largely isopycnal; Atlantic and to a lesser extent Indian Deep Waters cool and freshen while Pacific deep waters are more stable, leading to a homogenization of water mass properties. As upwelling water approaches the mixed layer, there is net strong transformation toward lighter densities due to mixing of freshwater, but there is a divergence in the density distribution as Upper Circumpolar Deep Water tends become lighter and dense Lower Circumpolar Deep Water tends to become denser. The spatial distribution of transformation shows more rapid transformation at eddy hot spots associated with major topography where density gradients are enhanced; however, the majority of cumulative density change along trajectories is achieved by background mixing. We compare the Lagrangian analysis to diagnosed Eulerian water mass transformation to attribute the mechanisms leading to the observed transformation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Tamsitt, V. and Abernathey, R. P. and Mazloff, M. R. and Wang, J. and Talley, L. D.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {1994--2017}
}

@article{tagliabue_integral_2017,
	title = {The integral role of iron in ocean biogeochemistry},
	volume = {543},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature21058},
	doi = {10.1038/nature21058},
	language = {en},
	number = {7643},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Tagliabue, Alessandro and Bowie, Andrew R. and Boyd, Philip W. and Buck, Kristen N. and Johnson, Kenneth S. and Saito, Mak A.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {51--59}
}

@article{swallow_observation_1961,
	title = {An observation of a deep countercurrent in the {Western} {North} {Atlantic}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {01466313},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0146631361900119},
	doi = {10.1016/0146-6313(61)90011-9},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research (1953)},
	author = {Swallow, J.C. and Worthington, L.V.},
	month = jun,
	year = {1961},
	pages = {1--IN3}
}

@article{stommel_steady_1957,
	title = {Steady {Convective} {Motion} in a {Horizontal} {Layer} of {Fluid} {Heated} {Uniformly} from {Above} and {Cooled} {Non}-uniformly from {Below}},
	volume = {9},
	issn = {00402826, 21533490},
	url = {http://tellusa.net/index.php/tellusa/article/view/9100},
	doi = {10.1111/j.2153-3490.1957.tb01896.x},
	abstract = {A gravitationally stable fluid layer is heated non-uniformly (sinusoidally)at the bottom (or top) and a thermal convection regime is established. Examples are worked out for cases (i) without rotation (ii) with uniform rotation, and (iii) with non-uniform rotation (beta-plane).},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Tellus},
	author = {Stommel, Henry and Veronis, George},
	month = aug,
	year = {1957},
	pages = {401--407}
}

@article{st._laurent_estimates_2006,
	title = {Estimates of {Power} {Consumed} by {Mixing} in the {Ocean} {Interior}},
	volume = {19},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI3887.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI3887.1},
	abstract = {Much attention has focused on the power required for driving mixing processes in the ocean interior, the thermohaline circulation, and the related meridional overturning circulation (MOC). Recent estimates range from roughly 0.5 to 2 TW (1 TW ϭ 1 ϫ 1012 W), based on differing arguments for the closure of the MOC mass budget. While these values are both O(1) TW, the thermodynamic implications of the estimates are significantly different. In addition, these numbers represent an integral constraint on the global circulation, and the apparent discrepancy merits careful examination. Through basic thermodynamic considerations on water mass mixing, a mechanical power consumption of 3 Ϯ 1 TW is found to be consistent with a basic knowledge of the distribution and magnitude of oceanic turbulence diffusivities. This estimate is somewhat independent of any specific model for mass closure of the MOC. In addition, this estimate is based on a thermocline diffusivity of only 0.1 cm2 sϪ1, with enhanced diffusivities acting only in the deep and bottom waters. Adding enhanced diffusivities in the upper ocean, or lowering the mixing efficiency below 20\%, will increase the power estimate. Moreover, 3 TW is a reasonable estimate for the power availability to processes acting beneath the oceanic mixed layer.},
	language = {en},
	number = {19},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {St. Laurent, Louis and Simmons, Harper},
	month = oct,
	year = {2006},
	pages = {4877--4890}
}

@article{stewart_vertical_2017,
	title = {Vertical resolution of baroclinic modes in global ocean models},
	volume = {113},
	issn = {14635003},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1463500317300434},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2017.03.012},
	abstract = {Improvements in the horizontal resolution of global ocean models, motivated by the horizontal resolution requirements for specific flow features, has advanced modelling capabilities into the dynamical regime dominated by mesoscale variability. In contrast, the choice of the vertical grid remains a subjective choice, and it is not clear that efforts to improve vertical resolution adequately support their horizontal counterparts. Indeed, considering that the bulk of the vertical ocean dynamics (including convection) are parameterized, it is not immediately obvious what the vertical grid is supposed to resolve. Here, we propose that the primary purpose of the vertical grid in a hydrostatic ocean model is to resolve the vertical structure of horizontal flows, rather than to resolve vertical motion. With this principle we construct vertical grids based on their abilities to represent baroclinic modal structures commensurate with the theoretical capabilities of a given horizontal grid. This approach is designed to ensure that the vertical grids of global ocean models complement (and, importantly, to not undermine) the resolution capabilities of the horizontal grid. We find that for z-coordinate global ocean models, at least 50 wellpositioned vertical levels are required to resolve the first baroclinic mode, with an additional 25 levels per subsequent mode. High-resolution ocean-sea ice simulations are used to illustrate some of the dynamical enhancements gained by improving the vertical resolution of a 1/10° global ocean model. These enhancements include substantial increases in the sea surface height variance (∼30\% increase south of 40°S), the barotropic and baroclinic eddy kinetic energies (up to 200\% increase on and surrounding the Antarctic continental shelf and slopes), and the overturning streamfunction in potential density space (near-tripling of the Antarctic Bottom Water cell at 65°S).},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Stewart, K.D. and Hogg, A.McC. and Griffies, S.M. and Heerdegen, A.P. and Ward, M.L. and Spence, P. and England, M.H.},
	month = may,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {50--65}
}

@article{steig_tropical_2012,
	title = {Tropical forcing of {Circumpolar} {Deep} {Water} {Inflow} and outlet glacier thinning in the {Amundsen} {Sea} {Embayment}, {West} {Antarctica}},
	volume = {53},
	issn = {0260-3055, 1727-5644},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0260305500251690/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.3189/2012AoG60A110},
	abstract = {Outlet glaciers draining the Antarctic ice sheet into the Amundsen Sea Embayment (ASE) have accelerated in recent decades, most likely as a result of increased melting of their ice-shelf termini by warm Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). An ocean model forced with climate reanalysis data shows that, beginning in the early 1990s, an increase in westerly wind stress near the continental shelf edge drove an increase in CDW inflow onto the shelf. The change in local wind stress occurred predominantly in fall and early winter, associated with anomalous high sea-level pressure (SLP) to the north of the ASE and an increase in sea surface temperature (SST) in the central tropical Pacific. The SLP change is associated with geopotential height anomalies in the middle and upper troposphere, characteristic of a stationary Rossby wave response to tropical SST forcing, rather than with changes in the zonally symmetric circulation. Tropical Pacific warming similar to that of the 1990s occurred in the 1940s, and thus is a candidate for initiating the current period of ASE glacier retreat.},
	language = {en},
	number = {60},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Annals of Glaciology},
	author = {Steig, E.J. and Ding, Q. and Battisti, D.S. and Jenkins, A.},
	year = {2012},
	pages = {19--28}
}

@article{staquet_i_2002,
	title = {I {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{NTERNAL}{\textless}/span{\textgreater} {G} {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{RAVITY}{\textless}/span{\textgreater} {W} {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{AVES}{\textless}/span{\textgreater} : {From} {Instabilities} to {Turbulence}},
	volume = {34},
	issn = {0066-4189, 1545-4479},
	shorttitle = {I {\textless}span style="font-variant},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.fluid.34.090601.130953},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.fluid.34.090601.130953},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Staquet, C. and Sommeria, J.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {559--593}
}

@article{stahr_transport_1999,
	title = {Transport and bottom boundary layerobservations of the {North} {Atlantic} {Deep} {Western} {Boundary} {Current} at the {Blake} {Outer} {Ridge}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {09670645},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0967064598001015},
	doi = {10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00101-5},
	abstract = {The North Atlantic Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) was surveyed at the Blake Outer Ridge over 14 days in July and August 1992 to determine its volume transport and to investigate its bottom boundary layer (BBL). This site was chosen because previous investigations showed the DWBC to be strong and bottom-intensified on the ridge’s flanks and to have a thick BBL. The primary instrument used was the Absolute Velocity Profiler, a free-falling velocity and conductivity—temperature—depth device. In two sections across the width of the DWBC, volume transports of 17\$1 Sv and 18\$1 Sv were measured for all water flowing equatorward below a potential temperature of 6°C (1 Sv"1;10  m  s{\textbackslash} ). Transport values were derived using both absolute velocities and AVP-referenced geostrophic velocities and were the same within experimental uncertainty. Good agreement was found between our results and historical ones when both were similarly bounded and referenced. Although this was a shortterm survey, the mean of a 9-day time series of absolute velocity profiles was the same as the means of year-long current-meter records at three depths in the same location. A turbulent planetary BBL was found everywhere under the current. The thickness of the bottom mixed layer (BML), where concentrations of density, nutrients, and suspended sediments were vertically uniform, was asymmetrical across the current and up to 5 times thicker than the BBL. There was no velocity shear above the BBL within the thicker BMLs, and the across-slope density gradient was very small. The extra-thick BML is perhaps maintained by a combination of processes, including turbulence, downwelling Ekman transport, a weak up-slope return flow above the BBL, and buoyant convection from the BBL into the BML. The frictional bottom stress was mostly balanced by a down-stream change in the current’s external potential energy evidenced by a drop in the velocity core of the current. 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1-2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography},
	author = {Stahr, Frederick R. and Sanford, Thomas B.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1999},
	pages = {205--243}
}

@article{srokosz_past_2012,
	title = {Past, {Present}, and {Future} {Changes} in the {Atlantic} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	volume = {93},
	issn = {0003-0007, 1520-0477},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00151.1},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00151.1},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Srokosz, M. and Baringer, M. and Bryden, H. and Cunningham, S. and Delworth, T. and Lozier, S. and Marotzke, J. and Sutton, R.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {1663--1676}
}

@article{spratt_late_2016,
	title = {A {Late} {Pleistocene} sea level stack},
	volume = {12},
	issn = {1814-9332},
	url = {https://www.clim-past.net/12/1079/2016/},
	doi = {10.5194/cp-12-1079-2016},
	abstract = {Late Pleistocene sea level has been reconstructed from ocean sediment core data using a wide variety of proxies and models. However, the accuracy of individual reconstructions is limited by measurement error, local variations in salinity and temperature, and assumptions particular to each technique. Here we present a sea level stack (average) which increases the signal-to-noise ratio of individual reconstructions. Specifically, we perform principal component analysis (PCA) on seven records from 0 to 430 ka and five records from 0 to 798 ka. The first principal component, which we use as the stack, describes ∼ 80 \% of the variance in the data and is similar using either five or seven records. After scaling the stack based on Holocene and Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) sea level estimates, the stack agrees to within 5 m with isostatically adjusted coral sea level estimates for Marine Isotope Stages 5e and 11 (125 and 400 ka, respectively). Bootstrapping and random sampling yield mean uncertainty estimates of 9–12 m (1σ ) for the scaled stack. Sea level change accounts for about 45 \% of the total orbitalband variance in benthic δ18O, compared to a 65 \% contribution during the LGM-to-Holocene transition. Additionally, the second and third principal components of our analyses reflect differences between proxy records associated with spatial variations in the δ18O of seawater.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Climate of the Past},
	author = {Spratt, Rachel M. and Lisiecki, Lorraine E.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {1079--1092}
}

@article{speer_diabatic_2000,
	title = {The {Diabatic} {Deacon} {Cell}*},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282000%29030%3C3212%3ATDDC%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2000)030<3212:TDDC>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Southern Ocean air–sea fluxes from the COADS dataset are examined for compatibility between buoyancy gain and northward Ekman transport. An analysis in density classes points to an upwelling of Upper Circumpolar Deep Water and subsequent buoyancy gain from air–sea exchange as water flows northward in the Ekman layer. The Upper Circumpolar Deep Water layer is too shallow to admit southward geostrophic flow along topography, and an eddy mass flux mechanism for southward transport in this layer to replenish the upwelling is advanced, based on observed large-scale potential vorticity gradients. Estimates of the strength and vertical structure of the meridional flow are given using repeated hydrographic sections and a new climatology.},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Speer, Kevin and Rintoul, Stephen R. and Sloyan, Bernadette},
	month = dec,
	year = {2000},
	pages = {3212--3222}
}

@article{solomon_stratospheric_1999,
	title = {Stratospheric ozone depletion: {A} review of concepts and history},
	volume = {37},
	issn = {87551209},
	shorttitle = {Stratospheric ozone depletion},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/1999RG900008},
	doi = {10.1029/1999RG900008},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Solomon, Susan},
	month = aug,
	year = {1999},
	pages = {275--316}
}

@incollection{smyth_three-dimensional_2001,
	title = {Three-dimensional (3d) {Turbulence}},
	isbn = {978-0-12-227430-5},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B012227430X001343},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	booktitle = {Encyclopedia of {Ocean} {Sciences}},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	author = {Smyth, W.D. and Moum, J.N.},
	year = {2001},
	doi = {10.1006/rwos.2001.0134},
	pages = {2947--2955}
}

@article{smith_sub-ice-shelf_2017,
	title = {Sub-ice-shelf sediments record history of twentieth-century retreat of {Pine} {Island} {Glacier}},
	volume = {541},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature20136},
	doi = {10.1038/nature20136},
	language = {en},
	number = {7635},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Smith, J. A. and Andersen, T. J. and Shortt, M. and Gaffney, A. M. and Truffer, M. and Stanton, T. P. and Bindschadler, R. and Dutrieux, P. and Jenkins, A. and Hillenbrand, C.-D. and Ehrmann, W. and Corr, H. F. J. and Farley, N. and Crowhurst, S. and Vaughan, D. G.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {77--80}
}

@article{smith_time_2016,
	title = {Time series measurements of transient tracers and tracer-derived transport in the {Deep} {Western} {Boundary} {Current} between the {Labrador} {Sea} and the subtropical {Atlantic} {Ocean} at {Line} {W}: {TRANSIENT} {TRACER} {MEASUREMENTS} {ON} {LINE} {W}},
	volume = {121},
	issn = {21699275},
	shorttitle = {Time series measurements of transient tracers and tracer-derived transport in the {Deep} {Western} {Boundary} {Current} between the {Labrador} {Sea} and the subtropical {Atlantic} {Ocean} at {Line} {W}},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2016JC011759},
	doi = {10.1002/2016JC011759},
	abstract = {Time series measurements of the nuclear fuel reprocessing tracer 129I and the gas ventilation tracer CFC-11 were undertaken on the AR7W section in the Labrador Sea (1997–2014) and on Line W (2004–2014), located over the US continental slope off Cape Cod, to determine advection and mixing time scales for the transport of Denmark Strait Overflow Water (DSOW) within the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC). Tracer measurements were also conducted in 2010 over the continental rise southeast of Bermuda to intercept the equatorward flow of DSOW by interior pathways. The Labrador Sea tracer and hydrographic time series data were used as input functions in a boundary current model that employs transit time distributions to simulate the effects of mixing and advection on downstream tracer distributions. Model simulations of tracer levels in the boundary current core and adjacent interior (shoulder) region with which mixing occurs were compared with the Line W time series measurements to determine boundary current model parameters. These results indicate that DSOW is transported from the Labrador Sea to Line W via the DWBC on a time scale of 5–6 years corresponding to a mean flow velocity of 2.7 cm/s while mixing between the core and interior regions occurs with a time constant of 2.6 years. A tracer section over the southern flank of the Bermuda rise indicates that the flow of DSOW that separated from the DWBC had undergone transport through interior pathways on a time scale of 9 years with a mixing time constant of 4 years.},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Smith, John N. and Smethie, William M. and Yashayev, Igor and Curry, Ruth and Azetsu-Scott, Kumiko},
	month = nov,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {8115--8138}
}

@article{smeed_north_2018,
	title = {The {North} {Atlantic} {Ocean} {Is} in a {State} of {Reduced} {Overturning}},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0094-8276, 1944-8007},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2017GL076350},
	doi = {10.1002/2017GL076350},
	abstract = {The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is responsible for a variable and climatically important northward transport of heat. Using data from an array of instruments that span the Atlantic at 26°N, we show that the AMOC has been in a state of reduced overturning since 2008 as compared to 2004–2008. This change of AMOC state is concurrent with other changes in the North Atlantic such as a northward shift and broadening of the Gulf Stream and altered patterns of heat content and sea surface temperature. These changes resemble the response to a declining AMOC predicted by coupled climate models. Concurrent changes in air-sea fluxes close to the western boundary reveal that the changes in ocean heat transport and sea surface temperature have altered the pattern of ocean-atmosphere heat exchange over the North Atlantic. These results provide strong observational evidence that the AMOC is a major factor in decadal-scale variability of North Atlantic climate.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Smeed, D. A. and Josey, S. A. and Beaulieu, C. and Johns, W. E. and Moat, B. I. and Frajka‐Williams, E. and Rayner, D. and Meinen, C. S. and Baringer, M. O. and Bryden, H. L. and McCarthy, G. D.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {1527--1533}
}

@article{smeed_observed_2014,
	title = {Observed decline of the {Atlantic} meridional overturning circulation 2004\&amp;ndash;2012},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1812-0792},
	url = {https://www.ocean-sci.net/10/29/2014/},
	doi = {10.5194/os-10-29-2014},
	abstract = {The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) has been observed continuously at 26◦ N since April 2004. The AMOC and its component parts are monitored by combining a transatlantic array of moored instruments with submarine-cable-based measurements of the Gulf Stream and satellite derived Ekman transport. The time series has recently been extended to October 2012 and the results show a downward trend since 2004. From April 2008 to March 2012, the AMOC was an average of 2.7 Sv (1 Sv = 106 m3 s−1) weaker than in the first four years of observation (95 \% confidence that the reduction is 0.3 Sv or more). Ekman transport reduced by about 0.2 Sv and the Gulf Stream by 0.5 Sv but most of the change (2.0 Sv) is due to the mid-ocean geostrophic flow. The change of the mid-ocean geostrophic flow represents a strengthening of the southward flow above the thermocline. The increased southward flow of warm waters is balanced by a decrease in the southward flow of lower North Atlantic deep water below 3000 m. The transport of lower North Atlantic deep water slowed by 7 \% per year (95 \% confidence that the rate of slowing is greater than 2.5 \% per year).},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Ocean Science},
	author = {Smeed, D. A. and McCarthy, G. D. and Cunningham, S. A. and Frajka-Williams, E. and Rayner, D. and Johns, W. E. and Meinen, C. S. and Baringer, M. O. and Moat, B. I. and Duchez, A. and Bryden, H. L.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {29--38}
}

@article{small_new_2014,
	title = {A new synoptic scale resolving global climate simulation using the {Community} {Earth} {System} {Model}},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {19422466},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2014MS000363},
	doi = {10.1002/2014MS000363},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
	author = {Small, R. Justin and Bacmeister, Julio and Bailey, David and Baker, Allison and Bishop, Stuart and Bryan, Frank and Caron, Julie and Dennis, John and Gent, Peter and Hsu, Hsiao-ming and Jochum, Markus and Lawrence, David and Muñoz, Ernesto and diNezio, Pedro and Scheitlin, Tim and Tomas, Robert and Tribbia, Joseph and Tseng, Yu-heng and Vertenstein, Mariana},
	month = dec,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {1065--1094}
}

@article{shugar_river_2017,
	title = {River piracy and drainage basin reorganization led by climate-driven glacier retreat},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/ngeo2932},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2932},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Shugar, Daniel H. and Clague, John J. and Best, James L. and Schoof, Christian and Willis, Michael J. and Copland, Luke and Roe, Gerard H.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {370--375}
}

@article{shepherd_trends_2018,
	title = {Trends and connections across the {Antarctic} cryosphere},
	volume = {558},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0171-6},
	doi = {10.1038/s41586-018-0171-6},
	language = {en},
	number = {7709},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Shepherd, Andrew and Fricker, Helen Amanda and Farrell, Sinead Louise},
	month = jun,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {223--232}
}

@article{sherwood_radiosonde_2005,
	title = {Radiosonde {Daytime} {Biases} and {Late}-20th {Century} {Warming}},
	volume = {309},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.1115640},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1115640},
	language = {en},
	number = {5740},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Sherwood, S. C.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {1556--1559}
}

@article{sheldon_population_1972,
	title = {{THE} {POPULATION} {DENSITY} {OF} {MONSTERS} {IN} {LOCH} {NESS1}},
	volume = {17},
	issn = {00243590},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.4319/lo.1972.17.5.0796},
	doi = {10.4319/lo.1972.17.5.0796},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Limnology and Oceanography},
	author = {Sheldon, R. W. and Kerr, S. R.},
	month = sep,
	year = {1972},
	pages = {796--798}
}

@article{shaman_complex_2012,
	title = {Complex {Wavenumber} {Rossby} {Wave} {Ray} {Tracing}},
	volume = {69},
	issn = {0022-4928, 1520-0469},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JAS-D-11-0193.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JAS-D-11-0193.1},
	abstract = {This paper presents a methodology for performing complex wavenumber ray tracing in which both wave trajectory and amplitude are calculated. This ray-tracing framework is first derived using a scaling in which the imaginary wavenumber component is assumed to be much smaller than the real wavenumber component. The approach, based on perturbation methods, is strictly valid when this scaling condition is met. The framework is then used to trace stationary barotropic Rossby waves in a number of settings. First, ray-traced Rossby wave amplitude is validated in a simple, idealized system for which exact solutions can be calculated. Complex wavenumber ray tracing is then applied to both solid-body rotation on a sphere and observed climatological upper-tropospheric fields. These ray-tracing solutions are compared with similarly forced solutions of the linearized barotropic vorticity equation (LBVE). Both real and complex wavenumber ray tracings follow trajectories matched by LBVE solutions. Complex wavenumber ray tracings on observed two-dimensional zonally asymmetric atmospheric fields are found to follow trajectories distinct from real wavenumber Rossby waves. For example, complex wavenumber ray tracings initiated over the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean during boreal summer propagate northward and northeastward into the subtropics over the Atlantic Ocean, as well as southeastward into the Southern Hemisphere. Similarly initiated real wavenumber ray tracings remain within the deep tropics and propagate westward. These complex wavenumber Rossby wave trajectories and ray amplitudes are generally consistent with LBVE solutions, which indicates this methodology can identify Rossby wave effects distinct from traditional real wavenumber tracings.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Shaman, Jeffrey and Samelson, R. M. and Tziperman, Eli},
	month = jul,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {2112--2133}
}

@article{shakun_minimal_2018,
	title = {Minimal {East} {Antarctic} {Ice} {Sheet} retreat onto land during the past eight million years},
	volume = {558},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0155-6},
	doi = {10.1038/s41586-018-0155-6},
	language = {en},
	number = {7709},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Shakun, Jeremy D. and Corbett, Lee B. and Bierman, Paul R. and Underwood, Kristen and Rizzo, Donna M. and Zimmerman, Susan R. and Caffee, Marc W. and Naish, Tim and Golledge, Nicholas R. and Hay, Carling C.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {284--287}
}

@article{shakespeare_spontaneous_2017,
	title = {Spontaneous {Surface} {Generation} and {Interior} {Amplification} of {Internal} {Waves} in a {Regional}-{Scale} {Ocean} {Model}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0188.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0188.1},
	abstract = {Recent theories, models, and observations have suggested the presence of significant spontaneous internal wave generation at density fronts near the ocean surface. Spontaneous generation is the emission of waves by unbalanced, large Rossby number flows in the absence of direct forcing. Here, spontaneous generation is investigated in a zonally reentrant channel model using parameter values typical of the Southern Ocean. The model is carefully equilibrated to obtain a steady-state wave field for which a closed energy budget is formulated. There are two main results: First, waves are spontaneously generated at sharp fronts in the top 50 m of the model. The magnitude of the energy flux to the wave field at these fronts is comparable to that from other mechanisms of wave generation. Second, the surface-generated wave field is amplified in the model interior through interaction with horizontal density gradients within the main zonal current. The magnitude of the mean-to-wave conversion in the model interior is comparable to recent observational estimates and is the dominant source of wave energy in the model, exceeding the initial spontaneous generation. This second result suggests that internal amplification of the wave field may contribute to the ocean’s internal wave energy budget at a rate commensurate with known generation mechanisms.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Shakespeare, Callum J. and Hogg, Andrew McC.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {811--826}
}

@article{shakespeare_analytical_2012,
	title = {An {Analytical} {Model} of the {Response} of the {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation} to {Changes} in {Wind} and {Buoyancy} {Forcing}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-11-0198.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-11-0198.1},
	abstract = {An analytical model of the full-depth ocean stratification and meridional overturning circulation for an idealized Atlantic basin with a circumpolar channel is presented. The model explicitly describes the ocean response to both Southern Ocean winds and the global pattern and strength of prescribed surface buoyancy fluxes. The construction of three layers, defined by the two isopycnals of overturning extrema, allows the description of circulation and stratification in both the upper and abyssal ocean. The system is fully solved in the adiabatic limit to yield scales for the surface layer thickness, buoyancies of each layer, and overturning magnitudes. The analytical model also allows scaling of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) transport. The veracity of the three-layer framework and derived scales is confirmed by applying the analytical model to an idealized geometry, eddy-permitting ocean general circulation model.},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Shakespeare, Callum J. and McC. Hogg, Andrew},
	month = aug,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {1270--1287}
}

@article{sevellec_geostrophic_2016,
	title = {Geostrophic {Closure} of the {Zonally} {Averaged} {Atlantic} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-14-0148.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-14-0148.1},
	abstract = {It is typically assumed that the meridional density gradient in the North Atlantic is well and positively correlated with the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC). In numerical ‘‘water-hosing’’ experiments, for example, imposing an anomalous freshwater flux in the Northern Hemisphere leads to a slowdown of the AMOC. However, on planetary scale, the first-order dynamics are linked to the geostrophic balance, relating the north–south pressure gradient to the zonal circulation. In this study, these two approaches are reconciled. At steady state and under geostrophic dynamics, an analytical expression is derived to relate the zonal and meridional pressure gradient. This solution is only valid where the meridional density gradient length scale is shorter than Earth’s curvature length scale, that is, north of 358N. This theoretical expression links the north–south density gradient to the AMOC and can be used as a closure for zonally averaged ocean models. Assumptions and shortcomings of the approach are presented. Implications of these results for paleoclimate problems such as AMOC collapse and asymmetry in the meridional overturning circulation of the Atlantic and of the Pacific are discussed.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Sévellec, Florian and Huck, Thierry},
	month = mar,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {895--917}
}

@article{seager_is_2002,
	title = {Is the {Gulf} {Stream} responsible for {Europe}'s mild winters?},
	volume = {128},
	issn = {1477870X, 00359009},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1256/qj.01.128},
	doi = {10.1256/qj.01.128},
	language = {en},
	number = {586},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society},
	author = {Seager, R. and Battisti, D. S. and Yin, J. and Gordon, N. and Naik, N. and Clement, A. C. and Cane, M. A.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {2563--2586}
}

@article{schmitz_interbasin-scale_1995,
	title = {On the interbasin-scale thermohaline circulation},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {8755-1209},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/95RG00879},
	doi = {10.1029/95RG00879},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Schmitz, William J.},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {151}
}

@article{schmidtko_decline_2017,
	title = {Decline in global oceanic oxygen content during the past five decades},
	volume = {542},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature21399},
	doi = {10.1038/nature21399},
	language = {en},
	number = {7641},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Schmidtko, Sunke and Stramma, Lothar and Visbeck, Martin},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {335--339}
}

@article{schmidtko_multidecadal_nodate,
	title = {Multidecadal warming of {Antarctic} waters},
	language = {en},
	author = {Schmidtko, Sunke and Heywood, Karen J and Thompson, Andrew F and Aoki, Shigeru},
	pages = {6}
}

@article{schmidt_practice_2017,
	title = {Practice and philosophy of climate model tuning across six {U}.{S}. modeling centers},
	issn = {1991-962X},
	url = {https://www.geosci-model-dev-discuss.net/gmd-2017-30/},
	doi = {10.5194/gmd-2017-30},
	abstract = {Model calibration (or “tuning”) is a necessary part of developing and testing coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models regardless of their main scientific purpose. There is an increasing recognition that this process needs to become more transparent for both users of climate model output and other developers. Knowing how and why climate models are tuned and which targets are used is essential to avoiding possible misattributions of skillful predictions to data accommodation and vice 5 versa. This paper describes the approach and practice of model tuning for the six major U.S. climate modeling centers. While details differ among groups in terms of scientific missions, tuning targets and tunable parameters, there is a core commonality of approaches. However, practices differ significantly on some key aspects, in particular, in the use of initialized forecast analyses as a tool, the explicit use of the historical transient record, and the use of the present day radiative imbalance vs. the implied balance in the pre-industrial as a target.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geoscientific Model Development Discussions},
	author = {Schmidt, Gavin A. and Bader, David and Donner, Leo J. and Elsaesser, Gregory S. and Golaz, Jean-Christophe and Hannay, Cecile and Molod, Andrea and Neale, Rich and Saha, Suranjana},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {1--24}
}

@article{scher_carbonocean_2017,
	title = {Carbon–ocean gateway links: {Palaeoclimate}},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	shorttitle = {Carbon–ocean gateway links},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2895},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2895},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Scher, Howie},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {164--165}
}

@article{schaefer_greenland_2016,
	title = {Greenland was nearly ice-free for extended periods during the {Pleistocene}},
	volume = {540},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature20146},
	doi = {10.1038/nature20146},
	language = {en},
	number = {7632},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Schaefer, Joerg M. and Finkel, Robert C. and Balco, Greg and Alley, Richard B. and Caffee, Marc W. and Briner, Jason P. and Young, Nicolas E. and Gow, Anthony J. and Schwartz, Roseanne},
	month = dec,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {252--255}
}

@article{santer_comparing_2017,
	title = {Comparing {Tropospheric} {Warming} in {Climate} {Models} and {Satellite} {Data}},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0333.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0333.1},
	abstract = {Updated and improved satellite retrievals of the temperature of the mid-to-upper troposphere (TMT) are used to address key questions about the size and significance of TMT trends, agreement with model-derived TMT values, and whether models and satellite data show similar vertical profiles of warming. A recent study claimed that TMT trends over 1979 and 2015 are 3 times larger in climate models than in satellite data but did not correct for the contribution TMT trends receive from stratospheric cooling. Here, it is shown that the average ratio of modeled and observed TMT trends is sensitive to both satellite data uncertainties and model–data differences in stratospheric cooling. When the impact of lower-stratospheric cooling on TMT is accounted for, and when the most recent versions of satellite datasets are used, the previously claimed ratio of three between simulated and observed near-global TMT trends is reduced to approximately 1.7. Next, the validity of the statement that satellite data show no significant tropospheric warming over the last 18 years is assessed. This claim is not supported by the current analysis: in five out of six corrected satellite TMT records, significant global-scale tropospheric warming has occurred within the last 18 years. Finally, longstanding concerns are examined regarding discrepancies in modeled and observed vertical profiles of warming in the tropical atmosphere. It is shown that amplification of tropical warming between the lower and mid-to-upper troposphere is now in close agreement in the average of 37 climate models and in one updated satellite record.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Santer, Benjamin D. and Solomon, Susan and Pallotta, Giuliana and Mears, Carl and Po-Chedley, Stephen and Fu, Qiang and Wentz, Frank and Zou, Cheng-Zhi and Painter, Jeffrey and Cvijanovic, Ivana and Bonfils, Céline},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {373--392}
}

@article{santer_amplification_2005,
	title = {Amplification of {Surface} {Temperature} {Trends} and {Variability} in the {Tropical} {Atmosphere}},
	volume = {309},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.1114867},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1114867},
	language = {en},
	number = {5740},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Santer, B. D.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {1551--1556}
}

@article{salmun_experiment_1992,
	title = {An experiment on boundary mixing. {Part} 2 {The} slope dependence at small angles},
	volume = {240},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112092000120},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112092000120},
	language = {en},
	number = {-1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Salmun, H. and Phillips, O. M.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1992},
	pages = {355}
}

@article{salmon_thermocline_1990,
	title = {The thermocline as an "internal boundary layer"},
	volume = {48},
	issn = {0022-2402},
	url = {http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/10.1357/002224090784984650},
	doi = {10.1357/002224090784984650},
	abstract = {In this paper, we analyze one-, two- and three-dimensional numerical solutions of a simple, inertia-less ocean circulation model. The solutions, which all approach a steady state, demonstrate that, in the limit of vanishing thermal diffusivity K, a front of thickness KI/2, identifiable with the thermocline, spontaneously appears at a location anticipated by simple arguments that treat the front as an "internal boundary layer." The temperature and velocity are generally discontinuous across the front, but the velocity component normal to the front is zero. In the asymptotic limit of vanishing diffusivity, the temperature has no vertical variation within the layer above the front, and the potential vorticity is correspondingly zero. The appearance of a front seems to require that the horizontal advection terms cancel in the temperature equation, i.e., that the horizontal velocity be directed along the isotherms on level surfaces. When the surface boundary conditions are specially chosen to prevent this cancellation, the front does not appear. However, in the more realistic cases in which the flow determines its own surface temperature, the cancellation occurs spontaneously and appears to be generically associated with the front.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	author = {Salmon, Rick},
	month = aug,
	year = {1990},
	pages = {437--469}
}

@article{salehipour_new_2016,
	title = {A new characterization of the turbulent diapycnal diffusivities of mass and momentum in the ocean: {TURBULENT} {DIAPYCNAL} {MIXING}: {GLOBAL} {MAPS}},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {00948276},
	shorttitle = {A new characterization of the turbulent diapycnal diffusivities of mass and momentum in the ocean},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2016GL068184},
	doi = {10.1002/2016GL068184},
	abstract = {The diapycnal diffusivity of mass supported by turbulent events in the ocean interior plays a fundamental role in controlling the global overturning circulation. The conventional representation of this diffusivity, due to Osborn (1980), assumes a constant mixing efficiency. We replace this methodology by a generalized-Osborn formula which involves a mixing efficiency that varies nonmonotonically with at least two nondimensional variables. Using these two variables, we propose dynamic parameterizations for mixing efficiency and turbulent Prandtl number (the latter quantifies the ratio of momentum to mass diapycnal diffusivities) based on the first synthesis of an extensive direct numerical simulation of inhomogeneously stratified shear-induced turbulence. Data from Argo floats are employed to demonstrate the extent of the spatial and statistical variability to be expected in both the diapycnal diffusivities of mass and momentum. We therefore suggest that previous estimates of these important characteristics of the global ocean require reconsideration.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Salehipour, H. and Peltier, W. R. and Whalen, C. B. and MacKinnon, J. A.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {3370--3379}
}

@article{sakaguchi_hindcast_2012,
	title = {The hindcast skill of the {CMIP} ensembles for the surface air temperature trend: {SURFACE} {AIR} {TEMPERATURE} {TREND} {BY} {CMIP3}\&5},
	volume = {117},
	issn = {01480227},
	shorttitle = {The hindcast skill of the {CMIP} ensembles for the surface air temperature trend},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2012JD017765},
	doi = {10.1029/2012JD017765},
	language = {en},
	number = {D16},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Sakaguchi, Koichi and Zeng, Xubin and Brunke, Michael A.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {n/a--n/a}
}

@article{saenko_effect_2005,
	title = {On the {Effect} of {Topographically} {Enhanced} {Mixing} on the {Global} {Ocean} {Circulation}},
	volume = {35},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO2722.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO2722.1},
	abstract = {The strong influence of enhanced diapycnal mixing over rough topography on bottom-water circulation is illustrated using results from two global ocean model experiments. In the first, diapycnal diffusivity is set to the observed background level of 10Ϫ5 m2 sϪ1 in regions not subject to shear instability, convection, or surface-driven mixing. In the second experiment, mixing is enhanced above rough bottom topography to represent the dissipation of internal tides. Three important results are obtained. First, without the enhanced mixing in the abyssal ocean, the deep North Pacific Ocean becomes essentially a stagnant basin, with little bottom-water circulation and very weak deep stratification. Allowing for the enhanced diapycnal mixing above rough bottom topography leads to increased bottom-water circulation and deep stratification and a potential vorticity distribution in the North Pacific that is much more realistic. Second, the enhanced diapycnal mixing above rough topography results in a significant intensification and deepening of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, as well as in stronger bottom-water formation around Antarctica. Last, our experiments suggest that dissipation of internal tides and the associated enhanced diapycnal mixing in the abyssal ocean play no part in the circulation of deep water forming in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the associated transport of heat in the ocean.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Saenko, O. A. and Merryfield, W. J.},
	month = may,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {826--834}
}

@article{ruppel_interaction_2017,
	title = {The interaction of climate change and methane hydrates: {Climate}-{Hydrates} {Interactions}},
	volume = {55},
	issn = {87551209},
	shorttitle = {The interaction of climate change and methane hydrates},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2016RG000534},
	doi = {10.1002/2016RG000534},
	abstract = {Gas hydrate, a frozen, naturally-occurring, and highly-concentrated form of methane, sequesters significant carbon in the global system and is stable only over a range of low-temperature and moderate-pressure conditions. Gas hydrate is widespread in the sediments of marine continental margins and permafrost areas, locations where ocean and atmospheric warming may perturb the hydrate stability field and lead to release of the sequestered methane into the overlying sediments and soils. Methane and methane-derived carbon that escape from sediments and soils and reach the atmosphere could exacerbate greenhouse warming. The synergy between warming climate and gas hydrate dissociation feeds a popular perception that global warming could drive catastrophic methane releases from the contemporary gas hydrate reservoir. Appropriate evaluation of the two sides of the climate-methane hydrate synergy requires assessing direct and indirect observational data related to gas hydrate dissociation phenomena and numerical models that track the interaction of gas hydrates/methane with the ocean and/or atmosphere. Methane hydrate is likely undergoing dissociation now on global upper continental slopes and on continental shelves that ring the Arctic Ocean. Many factors—the depth of the gas hydrates in sediments, strong sediment and water column sinks, and the inability of bubbles emitted at the seafloor to deliver methane to the sea-air interface in most cases—mitigate the impact of gas hydrate dissociation on atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations though. There is no conclusive proof that hydrate-derived methane is reaching the atmosphere now, but more observational data and improved numerical models will better characterize the climate-hydrate synergy in the future.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Ruppel, Carolyn D. and Kessler, John D.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {126--168}
}

@article{rintoul_ocean_2016,
	title = {Ocean heat drives rapid basal melt of the {Totten} {Ice} {Shelf}},
	volume = {2},
	issn = {2375-2548},
	url = {http://advances.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1601610},
	doi = {10.1126/sciadv.1601610},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science Advances},
	author = {Rintoul, Stephen Rich and Silvano, Alessandro and Pena-Molino, Beatriz and van Wijk, Esmee and Rosenberg, Mark and Greenbaum, Jamin Stevens and Blankenship, Donald D.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {e1601610}
}

@article{rintoul_choosing_2018,
	title = {Choosing the future of {Antarctica}},
	volume = {558},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0173-4},
	doi = {10.1038/s41586-018-0173-4},
	language = {en},
	number = {7709},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Rintoul, S. R. and Chown, S. L. and DeConto, R. M. and England, M. H. and Fricker, H. A. and Masson-Delmotte, V. and Naish, T. R. and Siegert, M. J. and Xavier, J. C.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {233--241}
}

@article{rintoul_global_2018,
	title = {The global influence of localized dynamics in the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	volume = {558},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0182-3},
	doi = {10.1038/s41586-018-0182-3},
	language = {en},
	number = {7709},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Rintoul, Stephen R.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {209--218}
}

@article{rignot_ice_2011,
	title = {Ice {Flow} of the {Antarctic} {Ice} {Sheet}},
	volume = {333},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.1208336},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1208336},
	abstract = {We present a reference, comprehensive, high-resolution, digital mosaic of ice motion in Antarctica assembled from multiple satellite interferometric synthetic-aperture radar data acquired during the International Polar Year 2007 to 2009. The data reveal widespread, patterned, enhanced flow with tributary glaciers reaching hundreds to thousands of kilometers inland over the entire continent. This view of ice sheet motion emphasizes the importance of basal-slip-dominated tributary flow over deformation-dominated ice sheet flow, redefines our understanding of ice sheet dynamics, and has far-reaching implications for the reconstruction and prediction of ice sheet evolution.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6048},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Rignot, E. and Mouginot, J. and Scheuchl, B.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {1427--1430}
}

@article{rhines_geostrophic_nodate,
	title = {Geostrophic {Turbulence}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Rhines, P B},
	pages = {41}
}

@article{rhines_homogenization_1982,
	title = {Homogenization of potential vorticity in planetary gyres},
	volume = {122},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112082002250},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112082002250},
	language = {en},
	number = {-1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Rhines, Peter B. and Young, William R.},
	month = sep,
	year = {1982},
	pages = {347}
}

@article{rasool_atmospheric_1971,
	title = {Atmospheric {Carbon} {Dioxide} and {Aerosols}: {Effects} of {Large} {Increases} on {Global} {Climate}},
	volume = {173},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	shorttitle = {Atmospheric {Carbon} {Dioxide} and {Aerosols}},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.173.3992.138},
	doi = {10.1126/science.173.3992.138},
	abstract = {A steady-state model of the normal (unpolluted) surface atmosphere predicts a daytime concentration of hydroxyl, hydroperoxyl, and methylperoxyl radicals approaching 5 X 108 molecules per cubic centimeter and a formaldehyde concentration of 5 X 101O molecules per cubic centimeter or 2 parts per billion. A radical chain reaction is proposed for the rapid removal of carbon monoxide, leading to a carbon monoxide lifetime as low as 0.2 year in the surface atmosphere.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3992},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Rasool, S. I. and Schneider, S. H.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1971},
	pages = {138--141}
}

@article{rahmstorf_ocean_2002,
	title = {Ocean circulation and climate during the past 120,000 years},
	volume = {419},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature01090},
	doi = {10.1038/nature01090},
	language = {en},
	number = {6903},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Rahmstorf, Stefan},
	month = sep,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {207--214}
}

@article{rahmstorf_exceptional_2015,
	title = {Exceptional twentieth-century slowdown in {Atlantic} {Ocean} overturning circulation},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {1758-678X, 1758-6798},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2554},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate2554},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Rahmstorf, Stefan and Box, Jason E. and Feulner, Georg and Mann, Michael E. and Robinson, Alexander and Rutherford, Scott and Schaffernicht, Erik J.},
	month = may,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {475--480}
}

@article{proistosescu_slow_2017,
	title = {Slow climate mode reconciles historical and model-based estimates of climate sensitivity},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {2375-2548},
	url = {http://advances.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1602821},
	doi = {10.1126/sciadv.1602821},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science Advances},
	author = {Proistosescu, Cristian and Huybers, Peter J.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {e1602821}
}

@article{pritchard_antarctic_2012,
	title = {Antarctic ice-sheet loss driven by basal melting of ice shelves},
	volume = {484},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature10968},
	doi = {10.1038/nature10968},
	language = {en},
	number = {7395},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Pritchard, H. D. and Ligtenberg, S. R. M. and Fricker, H. A. and Vaughan, D. G. and van den Broeke, M. R. and Padman, L.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {502--505}
}

@article{primeau_oceans_2006,
	title = {The {Ocean}’s {Memory} of the {Atmosphere}: {Residence}-{Time} and {Ventilation}-{Rate} {Distributions} of {Water} {Masses}},
	volume = {36},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	shorttitle = {The {Ocean}’s {Memory} of the {Atmosphere}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO2919.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO2919.1},
	abstract = {A conceptually new approach to diagnosing tracer-independent ventilation rates is developed. Tracer Green functions are exploited to partition ventilation rates according to the ventilated fluid’s residence time in the ocean interior and according to where this fluid enters and exits the interior. In the presence of mixing by mesoscale eddies, which are reasonably represented by diffusion, ventilation rates for overlapping entry and exit regions cannot meaningfully be characterized by a single rate. It is a physical consequence of diffusive transport that fluid elements that spend an infinitesimally short time in the interior cause singularly large ventilation rates for overlapping entry and exit regions. Therefore, ventilation must generally be characterized by a ventilation-rate distribution, ␾, partitioned according to the time that the ventilated fluid spends in the interior between successive surface contacts. An offline forward and adjoint time-averaged OGCM is used to illustrate the rich detail that ␾ and the closely related probability density function of residence times R provide on the way the ocean communicates with the surface. These diagnostics quantify the relative importance of various surface regions for ventilating the interior ocean by either exposing old water masses to the atmosphere or by forming newly ventilated ones. The model results suggest that the Southern Ocean plays a dominant role in ventilating the ocean, both as a region where new waters are ventilated into the interior and where old waters are first reexposed to the atmosphere.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Primeau, François W. and Holzer, Mark},
	month = jul,
	year = {2006},
	pages = {1439--1456}
}

@article{pratt_critical_2008,
	title = {Critical conditions and composite {Froude} numbers for layered flow with transverse variations in velocity},
	volume = {605},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S002211200800150X},
	doi = {10.1017/S002211200800150X},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Pratt, Larry J.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2008}
}

@article{pratt_role_nodate,
	title = {The role of the sloping bottom boundary layers in the overturning circulation},
	language = {en},
	author = {Pratt, Larry and Kaiser, Bryan},
	pages = {13}
}

@article{peterson_myth_2008,
	title = {{THE} {MYTH} {OF} {THE} 1970s {GLOBAL} {COOLING} {SCIENTIFIC} {CONSENSUS}},
	volume = {89},
	issn = {0003-0007, 1520-0477},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/2008BAMS2370.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2008BAMS2370.1},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Peterson, Thomas C. and Connolley, William M. and Fleck, John},
	month = sep,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {1325--1338}
}

@article{peters_oceanographic_2013,
	title = {Oceanographic controls on the diversity and extinction of planktonic foraminifera},
	volume = {493},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature11815},
	doi = {10.1038/nature11815},
	language = {en},
	number = {7432},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Peters, Shanan E. and Kelly, Daniel C. and Fraass, Andrew J.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {398--401}
}

@article{perlin_organization_2007,
	title = {Organization of stratification, turbulence, and veering in bottom {Ekman} layers},
	volume = {112},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2004JC002641},
	doi = {10.1029/2004JC002641},
	language = {en},
	number = {C5},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Perlin, A. and Moum, J. N. and Klymak, J. M. and Levine, M. D. and Boyd, T. and Kosro, P. M.},
	month = may,
	year = {2007}
}

@article{pedlosky_dynamics_1990,
	title = {The {Dynamics} of the {Oceanic} {Subtropical} {Gyres}},
	volume = {248},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.248.4953.316},
	doi = {10.1126/science.248.4953.316},
	language = {en},
	number = {4953},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Pedlosky, J.},
	month = apr,
	year = {1990},
	pages = {316--322}
}

@article{pedersen_glaciations_2013,
	title = {Glaciations in response to climate variations preconditioned by evolving topography},
	volume = {493},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature11786},
	doi = {10.1038/nature11786},
	abstract = {Supplementary Information, and Supplementary Videos 1 and 2). Modelled glaciers develop as a result of steady cooling over a period of 50 thousand years (kyr) followed by a 50-kyr steady temperature increase. The snowline altitude, which in our model is a linear function of surface temperature, is for both catchments lowered from 2,800 m down to 1,900 m (Fig. 1a, b). This snowline span of 900 m corresponds roughly to the difference between present-day snowline altitudes and suggested Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) snowline altitudes27. Importantly, although it is representative of the LGM snowline variation in the Bitterroot Range, the snowline interval is not meant to represent the actual LGM snowline lowering for Sierra Nevada, where the real snowline altitude reached only the highest parts of the mountain range during the Quaternary25. Instead, the experiment is designed to highlight the isolated effect of catchment hypsometry on glacial extent by keeping everything else equal. For the same reason, no tectonic uplift or erosion is introduced.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7431},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Pedersen, Vivi Kathrine and Egholm, David Lundbek},
	month = jan,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {206--210}
}

@article{paillard_predictable_2017,
	title = {Predictable ice ages on a chaotic planet: {Climate} science},
	volume = {542},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	shorttitle = {Predictable ice ages on a chaotic planet},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/542419a},
	doi = {10.1038/542419a},
	language = {en},
	number = {7642},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Paillard, Didier},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {419--420}
}

@article{past_interglacials_working_group_of_pages_interglacials_2016,
	title = {Interglacials of the last 800,000 years: {Interglacials} of the {Last} 800,000 {Years}},
	volume = {54},
	issn = {87551209},
	shorttitle = {Interglacials of the last 800,000 years},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2015RG000482},
	doi = {10.1002/2015RG000482},
	abstract = {Interglacials, including the present (Holocene) period, are warm, low land ice extent (high sea level), end-members of glacial cycles. Based on a sea level definition, we identify eleven interglacials in the last 800,000 years, a result that is robust to alternative definitions. Data compilations suggest that despite spatial heterogeneity, Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 5e (last interglacial) and 11c ({\textasciitilde}400 ka ago) were globally strong (warm), while MIS 13a ({\textasciitilde}500 ka ago) was cool at many locations. A step change in strength of interglacials at 450 ka is apparent only in atmospheric CO2 and in Antarctic and deep ocean temperature. The onset of an interglacial (glacial termination) seems to require a reducing precession parameter (increasing Northern Hemisphere summer insolation), but this condition alone is insufficient. Terminations involve rapid, nonlinear, reactions of ice volume, CO2, and temperature to external astronomical forcing. The precise timing of events may be modulated by millennial-scale climate change that can lead to a contrasting timing of maximum interglacial intensity in each hemisphere. A variety of temporal trends is observed, such that maxima in the main records are observed either early or late in different interglacials. The end of an interglacial (glacial inception) is a slower process involving a global sequence of changes. Interglacials have been typically 10–30 ka long. The combination of minimal reduction in northern summer insolation over the next few orbital cycles, owing to low eccentricity, and high atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations implies that the next glacial inception is many tens of millennia in the future.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {{Past Interglacials Working Group of PAGES}},
	month = mar,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {162--219}
}

@article{emile-geay_global_2017,
	title = {A global multiproxy database for temperature reconstructions of the {Common} {Era}},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {2052-4463},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/sdata201788},
	doi = {10.1038/sdata.2017.88},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Scientific Data},
	author = {Emile-Geay, Julien and McKay, Nicholas P. and Kaufman, Darrell S. and von Gunten, Lucien and Wang, Jianghao and Anchukaitis, Kevin J. and Abram, Nerilie J. and Addison, Jason A. and Curran, Mark A.J. and Evans, Michael N. and Henley, Benjamin J. and Hao, Zhixin and Martrat, Belen and McGregor, Helen V. and Neukom, Raphael and Pederson, Gregory T. and Stenni, Barbara and Thirumalai, Kaustubh and Werner, Johannes P. and Xu, Chenxi and Divine, Dmitry V. and Dixon, Bronwyn C. and Gergis, Joelle and Mundo, Ignacio A. and Nakatsuka, Takeshi and Phipps, Steven J. and Routson, Cody C. and Steig, Eric J. and Tierney, Jessica E. and Tyler, Jonathan J. and Allen, Kathryn J. and Bertler, Nancy A.N. and Björklund, Jesper and Chase, Brian M. and Chen, Min-Te and Cook, Ed and de Jong, Rixt and DeLong, Kristine L. and Dixon, Daniel A. and Ekaykin, Alexey A. and Ersek, Vasile and Filipsson, Helena L. and Francus, Pierre and Freund, Mandy B. and Frezzotti, Massimo and Gaire, Narayan P. and Gajewski, Konrad and Ge, Quansheng and Goosse, Hugues and Gornostaeva, Anastasia and Grosjean, Martin and Horiuchi, Kazuho and Hormes, Anne and Husum, Katrine and Isaksson, Elisabeth and Kandasamy, Selvaraj and Kawamura, Kenji and Kilbourne, K. Halimeda and Koç, Nalan and Leduc, Guillaume and Linderholm, Hans W. and Lorrey, Andrew M. and Mikhalenko, Vladimir and Mortyn, P. Graham and Motoyama, Hideaki and Moy, Andrew D. and Mulvaney, Robert and Munz, Philipp M. and Nash, David J. and Oerter, Hans and Opel, Thomas and Orsi, Anais J. and Ovchinnikov, Dmitriy V. and Porter, Trevor J. and Roop, Heidi A. and Saenger, Casey and Sano, Masaki and Sauchyn, David and Saunders, Krystyna M. and Seidenkrantz, Marit-Solveig and Severi, Mirko and Shao, Xuemei and Sicre, Marie-Alexandrine and Sigl, Michael and Sinclair, Kate and St. George, Scott and St. Jacques, Jeannine-Marie and Thamban, Meloth and Kuwar Thapa, Udya and Thomas, Elizabeth R. and Turney, Chris and Uemura, Ryu and Viau, Andre E. and Vladimirova, Diana O. and Wahl, Eugene R. and White, James W.C. and Yu, Zicheng and Zinke, Jens},
	month = jul,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {170088}
}

@article{pabortsava_carbon_2017,
	title = {Carbon sequestration in the deep {Atlantic} enhanced by {Saharan} dust},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2899},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2899},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Pabortsava, Katsiaryna and Lampitt, Richard S. and Benson, Jeff and Crowe, Christian and McLachlan, Robert and Le Moigne, Frédéric A. C. and Mark Moore, C. and Pebody, Corinne and Provost, Paul and Rees, Andrew P. and Tilstone, Gavin H. and Woodward, E. Malcolm S.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {189--194}
}

@article{orsi_circulation_1999,
	title = {Circulation, mixing, and production of {Antarctic} {Bottom} {Water}},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {00796611},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S007966119900004X},
	doi = {10.1016/S0079-6611(99)00004-X},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Progress in Oceanography},
	author = {Orsi, A.H. and Johnson, G.C. and Bullister, J.L.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1999},
	pages = {55--109}
}

@article{osborn_oceanic_1972,
	title = {Oceanic fine structure},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {0016-7991},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03091927208236085},
	doi = {10.1080/03091927208236085},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geophysical Fluid Dynamics},
	author = {Osborn, Thomas R. and Cox, Charles S.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1972},
	pages = {321--345}
}

@article{orr_anthropogenic_2005,
	title = {Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms},
	volume = {437},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature04095},
	doi = {10.1038/nature04095},
	language = {en},
	number = {7059},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Orr, James C. and Fabry, Victoria J. and Aumont, Olivier and Bopp, Laurent and Doney, Scott C. and Feely, Richard A. and Gnanadesikan, Anand and Gruber, Nicolas and Ishida, Akio and Joos, Fortunat and Key, Robert M. and Lindsay, Keith and Maier-Reimer, Ernst and Matear, Richard and Monfray, Patrick and Mouchet, Anne and Najjar, Raymond G. and Plattner, Gian-Kasper and Rodgers, Keith B. and Sabine, Christopher L. and Sarmiento, Jorge L. and Schlitzer, Reiner and Slater, Richard D. and Totterdell, Ian J. and Weirig, Marie-France and Yamanaka, Yasuhiro and Yool, Andrew},
	month = sep,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {681--686}
}

@article{olsen_global_2016,
	title = {The {Global} {Ocean} {Data} {Analysis} {Project} version 2 ({GLODAPv2}) – an internally consistent data product for the world ocean},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1866-3516},
	url = {https://www.earth-syst-sci-data.net/8/297/2016/},
	doi = {10.5194/essd-8-297-2016},
	abstract = {Version 2 of the Global Ocean Data Analysis Project (GLODAPv2) data product is composed of data from 724 scientific cruises covering the global ocean. It includes data assembled during the previous efforts GLODAPv1.1 (Global Ocean Data Analysis Project version 1.1) in 2004, CARINA (CARbon IN the Atlantic) in 2009/2010, and PACIFICA (PACIFic ocean Interior CArbon) in 2013, as well as data from an additional 168 cruises. Data for 12 core variables (salinity, oxygen, nitrate, silicate, phosphate, dissolved inorganic carbon, total alkalinity, pH, CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113, and CCl4) have been subjected to extensive quality control, including systematic evaluation of bias. The data are available in two formats: (i) as submitted but updated to WOCE exchange format and (ii) as a merged and internally consistent data product. In the latter, adjustments have been applied to remove significant biases, respecting occurrences of any known or likely time trends or variations. Adjustments applied by previous efforts were re-evaluated. Hence, GLODAPv2 is not a simple merging of previous products with some new data added but a unique, internally consistent data product. This compiled and adjusted data product is believed to be consistent to better than 0.005 in salinity, 1 \% in oxygen, 2 \% in nitrate, 2 \% in silicate, 2 \% in phosphate, 4 µmol kg−1 in dissolved inorganic carbon, 6 µmol kg−1 in total alkalinity, 0.005 in pH, and 5 \% for the halogenated transient tracers.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Earth System Science Data},
	author = {Olsen, Are and Key, Robert M. and van Heuven, Steven and Lauvset, Siv K. and Velo, Anton and Lin, Xiaohua and Schirnick, Carsten and Kozyr, Alex and Tanhua, Toste and Hoppema, Mario and Jutterström, Sara and Steinfeldt, Reiner and Jeansson, Emil and Ishii, Masao and Pérez, Fiz F. and Suzuki, Toru},
	month = aug,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {297--323}
}

@article{okubo_oceanic_1971,
	title = {Oceanic diffusion diagrams},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {00117471},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0011747171900465},
	doi = {10.1016/0011-7471(71)90046-5},
	abstract = {Some empirical relations between diffusion characteristics are investigated by the use of carefully examined data from instantaneous dye-releaseexperiments in the upper mixed layer of the sea. The data cover a time scale of diffusionranging from 2 hr to 1 month and a length scale from 30 m to 100 km. Two kinds of' diffusion diagrams' are prepared; one showing horizontal variance versus diffusion time and the other showing apparent diffusivity versus the scale of diffusion. The overall behaviors of the horizontal variance and of the apparent diffusivityare evidently different from those whichthe similaritytheory of turbulence deduces. However,there still remains a possibility that the similarity theory may be valid locally with different values of the rate of turbulent energy dissipation. The diagrams provide a practical means to predict the rate of horizontal spread of substance from an instantaneous source.},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts},
	author = {Okubo, Akira},
	month = aug,
	year = {1971},
	pages = {789--802}
}

@article{nycander_chaotic_2002,
	title = {Chaotic and regular trajectories in the {Antarctic} {Circumpolar} {Current}},
	abstract = {Methods from chaos theory are applied to the analysis of the circulation in the Southern Ocean, using velocity fields produced by a realistic global ocean model. We plot the intersections of individual trajectories encircling Antarctica with a vertical plane in the Drake passage. This so-called Poincare´ section shows a drastic difference between regular trajectories in a core region of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), and chaotic, mixing trajectories in the surrounding region. It also shows that there is a region with overturning circulation of approximately 3.5 Sv in the ACC, with downwelling on the northern side and upwelling on the southern side, which may be related to the Deacon cell.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Nycander, Jonas},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {8}
}

@article{noauthor_marine_2011,
	title = {Marine {Debris} in the {North} {Pacific}},
	language = {en},
	year = {2011},
	pages = {23}
}

@article{neelin_considerations_2010,
	title = {Considerations for parameter optimization and sensitivity in climate models},
	volume = {107},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1015473107},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1015473107},
	language = {en},
	number = {50},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Neelin, J. D. and Bracco, A. and Luo, H. and McWilliams, J. C. and Meyerson, J. E.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {21349--21354}
}

@article{naveira_garabato_high-latitude_2017,
	title = {High-latitude ocean ventilation and its role in {Earth}'s climate transitions},
	volume = {375},
	issn = {1364-503X, 1471-2962},
	url = {http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/lookup/doi/10.1098/rsta.2016.0324},
	doi = {10.1098/rsta.2016.0324},
	language = {en},
	number = {2102},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, 				Physical and Engineering Sciences},
	author = {Naveira Garabato, Alberto C. and MacGilchrist, Graeme A. and Brown, Peter J. and Evans, D. Gwyn and Meijers, Andrew J. S. and Zika, Jan D.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {20160324}
}

@article{nakano_effects_2002,
	title = {Effects of {Bottom} {Boundary} {Layer} {Parameterization} on {Reproducing} {Deep} and {Bottom} {Waters} in a {World} {Ocean} {Model}},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282002%29032%3C1209%3AEOBBLP%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032<1209:EOBBLP>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {A simple bottom boundary layer (BBL) model is developed to be incorporated into a z-coordinate medium resolution ocean general circulation model. In the BBL model, velocity is calculated from the pressure gradient, which is also calculated within the BBL. Preliminary experiments using an idealized basin model clearly document that, for reproducing realistic overflow/downslope flow, it is essential to adopt the horizontally distributed Rayleigh drag coefficient in the BBL model and also that, for avoiding warming of the abyssal ocean owing to unphysical strong flows created by the pressure gradient error along the steep slope, it is necessary to limit the area of the BBL. This BBL model is successfully incorporated into a World Ocean model with 1Њ ϫ 1Њ resolution, producing the overflow/downslope flow in the northern North Atlantic and around Antarctica. The dense overflow/ downslope flow water provides the nucleus of the abyssal water in the World Ocean, leading to the better representation of the abyssal water. Thus, the incorporation of the BBL model can reduce the warming bias for the abyssal water in a coarse resolution model without modifying surface boundary conditions. In addition, it can also alleviate the model bias of too shallow extension of North Atlantic Deep Water.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Nakano, Hideyuki and Suginohara, Nobuo},
	month = apr,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {1209--1227}
}

@article{muller_saturation_2009,
	title = {Saturation of the {Internal} {Tides} and {Induced} {Mixing} in the {Abyssal} {Ocean}},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2009JPO4141.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JPO4141.1},
	abstract = {As part of an ongoing effort to develop a parameterization of wave-induced abyssal mixing, the authors derive an heuristic model for nonlinear wave breaking and energy dissipation associated with internal tides. Then the saturation and dissipation of internal tides for idealized and observed topography samples are investigated. One of the main results is that the wave-induced mixing could be more intense and more confined to the bottom than previously assumed in numerical models. Furthermore, in this model wave breaking and mixing clearly depend on the small scales of the topography below 10 km or so, which is below the current resolution of global bathymetry. This motivates the use of a statistical approach to represent the unresolved topography when addressing the role of internal tides in mixing the deep ocean.},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Muller, Caroline J. and Bühler, Oliver},
	month = sep,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {2077--2096}
}
@article{moum_observations_2002,
	title = {Observations of {Boundary} {Mixing} over the {Continental} {Slope}},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282002%29032%3C2113%3AOOBMOT%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032<2113:OOBMOT>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Observations of mixing over the continental slope using a towed body reveal a great lateral extent (several kilometers) of continuously turbulent fluid within a few hundred meters of the boundary at depth 1600 m. The largest turbulent dissipation rates were observed over a 5 km horizontal region near a slope critical to the M2 internal tide. Over a submarine landslide perpendicular to the continental slope, enhanced mixing extended at least 600 m above the boundary, increasing toward the bottom. The resulting vertical divergence of the heat flux near the bottom implies that fluid there must be replenished.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Moum, J. N. and Caldwell, D. R. and Nash, J. D. and Gunderson, G. D.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {2113--2130}
}

@article{mora_global_2017,
	title = {Global risk of deadly heat},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {1758-678X, 1758-6798},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nclimate3322},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate3322},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Mora, Camilo and Dousset, Bénédicte and Caldwell, Iain R. and Powell, Farrah E. and Geronimo, Rollan C. and Bielecki, Coral R. and Counsell, Chelsie W. W. and Dietrich, Bonnie S. and Johnston, Emily T. and Louis, Leo V. and Lucas, Matthew P. and McKenzie, Marie M. and Shea, Alessandra G. and Tseng, Han and Giambelluca, Thomas W. and Leon, Lisa R. and Hawkins, Ed and Trauernicht, Clay},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {501--506}
}

@article{missirian_asylum_2017,
	title = {Asylum applications respond to temperature fluctuations},
	volume = {358},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aao0432},
	doi = {10.1126/science.aao0432},
	language = {en},
	number = {6370},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Missirian, Anouch and Schlenker, Wolfram},
	month = dec,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {1610--1614}
}

@article{melet_energy_2015,
	title = {Energy {Flux} into {Internal} {Lee} {Waves}: {Sensitivity} to {Future} {Climate} {Changes} {Using} {Linear} {Theory} and a {Climate} {Model}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	shorttitle = {Energy {Flux} into {Internal} {Lee} {Waves}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00432.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00432.1},
	abstract = {Internal lee waves generated by geostrophic flows over rough topography are thought to be a significant energy sink for eddies and energy source for deep ocean mixing. The sensitivity of the energy flux into lee waves from preindustrial, present, and possible future climate conditions is explored in this study using linear theory. The bottom stratification and geostrophic velocity fields needed for the calculation of the energy flux into lee waves are provided by Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory’s global coupled ocean–ice–atmosphere model, CM2G. The unresolved mesoscale eddy energy is parameterized as a function of the large-scale available potential energy. Simulations using historical and representative concentration pathway (RCP) scenarios were performed over the 1861–2200 period. The diagnostics herein suggest a decrease of the global energy flux into lee waves on the order of 20\% from preindustrial to future climate conditions under the RCP8.5 scenario. In the Southern Ocean, the energy flux into lee waves exhibits a clear annual cycle with maximum values in austral winter. The long-term decrease of the global energy flux into lee waves and the annual cycle of the energy flux in the Southern Ocean are mostly due to changes in bottom velocity.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Melet, Angélique and Hallberg, Robert and Adcroft, Alistair and Nikurashin, Maxim and Legg, Sonya},
	month = mar,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {2365--2384}
}

@article{medhaug_reconciling_2017,
	title = {Reconciling controversies about the ‘global warming hiatus’},
	volume = {545},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature22315},
	doi = {10.1038/nature22315},
	language = {en},
	number = {7652},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Medhaug, Iselin and Stolpe, Martin B. and Fischer, Erich M. and Knutti, Reto},
	month = may,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {41--47}
}

@article{mears_effect_2005,
	title = {The {Effect} of {Diurnal} {Correction} on {Satellite}-{Derived} {Lower} {Tropospheric} {Temperature}},
	volume = {309},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.1114772},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1114772},
	language = {en},
	number = {5740},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Mears, C. A.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {1548--1551}
}

@article{mcgranahan_rising_2007,
	title = {The rising tide: assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones},
	volume = {19},
	issn = {0956-2478, 1746-0301},
	shorttitle = {The rising tide},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0956247807076960},
	doi = {10.1177/0956247807076960},
	abstract = {Settlements in coastal lowlands are especially vulnerable to risks resulting from climate change, yet these lowlands are densely settled and growing rapidly. In this paper, we undertake the first global review of the population and urban settlement patterns in the Low Elevation Coastal Zone (LECZ), defined here as the contiguous area along the coast that is less than 10 metres above sea level. Overall, this zone covers 2 per cent of the world’s land area but contains 10 per cent of the world’s population and 13 per cent of the world’s urban population. A disproportionate number of the countries with a large share of their population in this zone are small island countries, but most of the countries with large populations in the zone are large countries with heavily populated delta regions. On average, the Least Developed Countries have a higher share of their population living in the zone (14 per cent) than do OECD countries (10 per cent), with even greater disparities in the urban shares (21 per cent compared to 11 per cent). Almost twothirds of urban settlements with populations greater than 5 million fall, at least partly, in the zone. In some countries (most notably China), urbanization is driving a movement in population towards the coast. Reducing the risk of disasters related to climate change in coastal settlements will require a combination of mitigation, migration and settlement modification.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Environment and Urbanization},
	author = {McGranahan, Gordon and Balk, Deborah and Anderson, Bridget},
	month = apr,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {17--37}
}

@article{mcdougall_reply_2018,
	title = {Reply to “{Comment} on ‘{Abyssal} {Upwelling} and {Downwelling} {Driven} by {Near}-{Boundary} {Mixing}’”},
	volume = {48},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-17-0227.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-17-0227.1},
	abstract = {Ledwell, in a comment on McDougall and Ferrari, discusses the dianeutral upwelling and downwelling that occurs near isolated topographic features, by performing a buoyancy budget analysis that integrates the diffusive buoyancy fluxes only out to a set horizontal distance from the topography. The consequence of this choice of control volume is that the magnitude of the area-integrated diffusive buoyancy flux decreases to zero at the base of a topographic feature resulting in a net dianeutral upwelling of water. Based on this result, Ledwell argues that isolated topographic features are preferential locations for the upwelling of waters from the abyss. However the assumptions behind Ledwell’s analysis may or may not be typical of abyssal mixing in the ocean. McDougall and Ferrari developed general expressions for the balance between area-integrated dianeutral advection and diffusion, and then illustrated these general expressions using the very simple assumption that the magnitude of the buoyancy flux per unit area at the top of the turbulent boundary layer was constant. In these pedagogical illustrations, McDougall and Ferrari concentrated on the region near the top (rather than near the base) of isolated topographic features, and they found net sinking of abyssal waters. Here we show that McDougall and Ferrari’s conclusion that isolated topographic features cause dianeutral downwelling is in fact a result that applies for general geometries and for all forms of bottom-intensified mixing profiles at heights above the base of such topographic features.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {McDougall, Trevor J. and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	month = mar,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {749--753}
}

@article{mcdonagh_circulation_2008,
	title = {The circulation of the {Indian} {Ocean} at 32°{S}},
	volume = {79},
	issn = {00796611},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0079661108001316},
	doi = {10.1016/j.pocean.2008.07.001},
	abstract = {Using inverse methods a circulation for a new section along 32°S in the Indian Ocean is derived with a maximum in the overturning stream function (or deep overturning) of 10.3 Sv at 3310 m. Shipboard and Lowered Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) data are used to inform the choice of reference level velocity for the initial geostrophic field. Our preferred solution includes a silicate constraint (À312 ± 380 kmol sÀ1) consistent with an Indonesian throughflow of 12 Sv. The overturning changes from 12.3 Sv at 3270 m when the silicate constraint is omitted to 10.3 Sv when it is included. The deep overturning varies by only ±0.7 Sv as the silicate constraint varies from +68 to À692 kmol sÀ1, and by ±0.3 Sv as the net flux across the section, driven by the Indonesian throughflow, varies from À7 to À17 Sv with an appropriately scaled silicate flux constraint. Thus, the overturning is insensitive to the size of the Indonesian throughflow and silicate constraint within their apriori uncertainties. We find that the use of the ADCP data adds significant detail to the horizontal circulation. These resolved circulations include the Agulhas Undercurrent, deep cyclonic gyres and deep fronts, features evidenced by long term integrators of the flow such as current meter and float measurements as well as water properties.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Progress in Oceanography},
	author = {McDonagh, Elaine L. and Bryden, Harry L. and King, Brian A. and Sanders, Richard J.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {20--36}
}

@article{mccarthy_measuring_2015,
	title = {Measuring the {Atlantic} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation} at 26°{N}},
	volume = {130},
	issn = {00796611},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0079661114001694},
	doi = {10.1016/j.pocean.2014.10.006},
	abstract = {The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) plays a key role in the global climate system through its redistribution of heat. Changes in the AMOC have been associated with large fluctuations in the earth’s climate in the past and projections of AMOC decline in the future due to climate change motivate the continuous monitoring of the circulation. Since 2004, the RAPID monitoring array has been providing continuous estimates of the AMOC and associated heat transport at 26°N in the North Atlantic. We describe how these measurements are made including the sampling strategy, the accuracies of parameters measured and the calculation of the AMOC. The strength of the AMOC and meridional heat transport are estimated as 17.2 Sv and 1.25 PW respectively from April 2004 to October 2012. The accuracy of ten day (annual) transports is 1.5 Sv (0.9 Sv). Improvements to the estimation of the transport above the shallowest instruments and deepest transports (including Antarctic Bottom Water), and the use of the new equation of state for seawater have reduced the estimated strength of the AMOC by 0.6 Sv relative to previous publications. As new basinwide AMOC monitoring projects begin in the South Atlantic and sub-polar North Atlantic, we present this thorough review of the methods and measurements of the original AMOC monitoring array.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Progress in Oceanography},
	author = {McCarthy, G.D. and Smeed, D.A. and Johns, W.E. and Frajka-Williams, E. and Moat, B.I. and Rayner, D. and Baringer, M.O. and Meinen, C.S. and Collins, J. and Bryden, H.L.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {91--111}
}

@article{mayer_walking_2012,
	title = {Walking with coffee: {Why} does it spill?},
	volume = {85},
	issn = {1539-3755, 1550-2376},
	shorttitle = {Walking with coffee},
	url = {https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevE.85.046117},
	doi = {10.1103/PhysRevE.85.046117},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Physical Review E},
	author = {Mayer, H. C. and Krechetnikov, R.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2012}
}

@article{marshall_oceans_2015,
	title = {The ocean’s role in the transient response of climate to abrupt greenhouse gas forcing},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {0930-7575, 1432-0894},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00382-014-2308-0},
	doi = {10.1007/s00382-014-2308-0},
	language = {en},
	number = {7-8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Marshall, John and Scott, Jeffery R. and Armour, Kyle C. and Campin, J.-M. and Kelley, Maxwell and Romanou, Anastasia},
	month = apr,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {2287--2299}
}

@article{marshall_parameterization_2010,
	title = {Parameterization of ocean eddies: {Potential} vorticity mixing, energetics and {Arnold}’s first stability theorem},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {14635003},
	shorttitle = {Parameterization of ocean eddies},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1463500310000107},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2010.02.001},
	abstract = {A family of eddy closures is studied that flux potential vorticity down-gradient and solve an explicit budget for the eddy energy, following the approach developed by Eden and Greatbatch (2008, Ocean Modelling). The aim of this manuscript is to demonstrate that when energy conservation is satisfied in this manner, the growth or decay of the parameterized eddy energy relates naturally to the instability or stability of the flow as described by Arnold’s first stability theorem. The resultant family of eddy closures therefore possesses some of the ingredients necessary to parameterize the gross effects of eddies in both forced-dissipative and freely-decaying turbulence. These ideas are illustrated through their application to idealized, barotropic wind-driven gyres in which the maximum eddy energy occurs within the viscous boundary layers and separated western boundary currents, and to freely-decaying turbulence in a closed barotropic basin in which inertial Fofonoff gyres emerge as the long-time solution. The result that these eddy closures preserve the relation between the growth or decay of eddy energy and the instability or stability of the flow provides further support for their use in ocean general circulation models.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3-4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Marshall, David P. and Adcroft, Alistair J.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {188--204}
}

@article{marinov_impact_2008,
	title = {Impact of oceanic circulation on biological carbon storage in the ocean and atmospheric \textit{p} {CO} $_{\textrm{2}}$: {IMPACT} {OF} {OCEANIC} {CIRCULATION}},
	volume = {22},
	issn = {08866236},
	shorttitle = {Impact of oceanic circulation on biological carbon storage in the ocean and atmospheric \textit{p} {CO} $_{\textrm{2}}$},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2007GB002958},
	doi = {10.1029/2007GB002958},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Global Biogeochemical Cycles},
	author = {Marinov, I. and Gnanadesikan, A. and Sarmiento, J. L. and Toggweiler, J. R. and Follows, M. and Mignone, B. K.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {n/a--n/a}
}

@article{mann_influence_2017,
	title = {Influence of {Anthropogenic} {Climate} {Change} on {Planetary} {Wave} {Resonance} and {Extreme} {Weather} {Events}},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {2045-2322},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/srep45242},
	doi = {10.1038/srep45242},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Scientific Reports},
	author = {Mann, Michael E. and Rahmstorf, Stefan and Kornhuber, Kai and Steinman, Byron A. and Miller, Sonya K. and Coumou, Dim},
	month = dec,
	year = {2017}
}

@article{malavelle_strong_2017,
	title = {Strong constraints on aerosol–cloud interactions from volcanic eruptions},
	volume = {546},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature22974},
	doi = {10.1038/nature22974},
	language = {en},
	number = {7659},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Malavelle, Florent F. and Haywood, Jim M. and Jones, Andy and Gettelman, Andrew and Clarisse, Lieven and Bauduin, Sophie and Allan, Richard P. and Karset, Inger Helene H. and Kristjánsson, Jón Egill and Oreopoulos, Lazaros and Cho, Nayeong and Lee, Dongmin and Bellouin, Nicolas and Boucher, Olivier and Grosvenor, Daniel P. and Carslaw, Ken S. and Dhomse, Sandip and Mann, Graham W. and Schmidt, Anja and Coe, Hugh and Hartley, Margaret E. and Dalvi, Mohit and Hill, Adrian A. and Johnson, Ben T. and Johnson, Colin E. and Knight, Jeff R. and O’Connor, Fiona M. and Partridge, Daniel G. and Stier, Philip and Myhre, Gunnar and Platnick, Steven and Stephens, Graeme L. and Takahashi, Hanii and Thordarson, Thorvaldur},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {485--491}
}

@article{manabe_i-i_._nodate,
	title = {I-{I}\_. {THE} {ATMOSPHERIC} {CIRCULATION} {AND} {THE} {EFFECT} {OF} {HEAT} {TRANSFERBY} {OCEAN} {CURRENTS}},
	abstract = {A general circulation model of the joint ocean-atmosphere system is constructed by combining an ocean model and an atmospheric model. The quantities exchanged between the oceanic part and the atmospheric part of the joint model are momentum, heat, and water. Integration of the atmospheric part yields the surface wind stress, net radiation, sensible heat flux, rates of rainfall and snowfall, rates of evaporation and sublimation, and rates of runoff and iceberg formation, all of which constitute the upper boundary conditions for the oceanic part of the model. From the oceanic part, the thickness of ice and the distribution of sea-surface temperature, which constitute the lower boundary conditions for the atmospheric part of the model, are computed.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Manabe, Syukuro},
	pages = {31}
}

@article{ma_theory_2017,
	title = {Theory of chaotic orbital variations confirmed by {Cretaceous} geological evidence},
	volume = {542},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature21402},
	doi = {10.1038/nature21402},
	language = {en},
	number = {7642},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Ma, Chao and Meyers, Stephen R. and Sageman, Bradley B.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {468--470}
}

@article{lund_abyssal_2011,
	title = {Abyssal {Atlantic} circulation during the {Last} {Glacial} {Maximum}: {Constraining} the ratio between transport and vertical mixing},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {0883-8305},
	shorttitle = {Abyssal {Atlantic} circulation during the {Last} {Glacial} {Maximum}},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2010PA001938},
	doi = {10.1029/2010PA001938},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Paleoceanography},
	author = {Lund, D. C. and Adkins, J. F. and Ferrari, R.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2011}
}

@article{lozier_overturning_2012,
	title = {Overturning in the {North} {Atlantic}},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {1941-1405, 1941-0611},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-marine-120710-100740},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-marine-120710-100740},
	abstract = {The global overturning of ocean waters involves the equatorward transport of cold, deep waters and the poleward transport of warm, near-surface waters. Such movement creates a net poleward transport of heat that, in partnership with the atmosphere, establishes the global and regional climates. Although oceanographers have long assumed that a reduction in deep water formation at high latitudes in the North Atlantic translates into a slowing of the ocean’s overturning and hence in Earth’s climate, observational and modeling studies over the past decade have called this assumed linkage into question. The observational basis for linking water mass formation with the ocean’s meridional overturning is reviewed herein. Understanding this linkage is crucial to efforts aimed at predicting the consequences of the warming and freshening of high-latitude surface waters to the climate system.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Annual Review of Marine Science},
	author = {Lozier, M. Susan},
	month = jan,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {291--315}
}

@article{lozier_opposing_2010,
	title = {Opposing decadal changes for the {North} {Atlantic} meridional overturning circulation},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo947},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo947},
	language = {en},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Lozier, M. Susan and Roussenov, Vassil and Reed, Mark S. C. and Williams, Richard G.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {728--734}
}

@article{lozier_deconstructing_2010,
	title = {Deconstructing the {Conveyor} {Belt}},
	volume = {328},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.1189250},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1189250},
	language = {en},
	number = {5985},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Lozier, M. S.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {1507--1511}
}

@article{lozier_evidence_1997,
	title = {Evidence for {Large}-{Scale} {Eddy}-{Driven} {Gyres} in the {North} {Atlantic}},
	volume = {277},
	issn = {00368075, 10959203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.277.5324.361},
	doi = {10.1126/science.277.5324.361},
	language = {en},
	number = {5324},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Lozier, M. S.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1997},
	pages = {361--364}
}

@article{liu_atmospheric_2017,
	title = {Atmospheric footprint of the recent warming slowdown},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {2045-2322},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/srep40947},
	doi = {10.1038/srep40947},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Scientific Reports},
	author = {Liu, Bo and Zhou, Tianjun},
	month = dec,
	year = {2017}
}

@article{liu_divergent_2013,
	title = {Divergent global precipitation changes induced by natural versus anthropogenic forcing},
	volume = {493},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature11784},
	doi = {10.1038/nature11784},
	language = {en},
	number = {7434},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Liu, Jian and Wang, Bin and Cane, Mark A. and Yim, So-Young and Lee, June-Yi},
	month = jan,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {656--659}
}

@article{liu_overlooked_2017,
	title = {Overlooked possibility of a collapsed {Atlantic} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation} in warming climate},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {2375-2548},
	url = {http://advances.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1601666},
	doi = {10.1126/sciadv.1601666},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science Advances},
	author = {Liu, Wei and Xie, Shang-Ping and Liu, Zhengyu and Zhu, Jiang},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {e1601666}
}

@article{levitus_global_2009,
	title = {Global ocean heat content 1955-2008 in light of recently revealed instrumentation problems: {GLOBAL} {OCEAN} {HEAT} {CONTENT}},
	volume = {36},
	issn = {00948276},
	shorttitle = {Global ocean heat content 1955-2008 in light of recently revealed instrumentation problems},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2008GL037155},
	doi = {10.1029/2008GL037155},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Levitus, S. and Antonov, J. I. and Boyer, T. P. and Locarnini, R. A. and Garcia, H. E. and Mishonov, A. V.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {n/a--n/a}
}

@article{le_quere_global_2018,
	title = {Global {Carbon} {Budget} 2017},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1866-3516},
	url = {https://www.earth-syst-sci-data.net/10/405/2018/},
	doi = {10.5194/essd-10-405-2018},
	abstract = {Accurate assessment of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and their redistribution among the atmosphere, ocean, and terrestrial biosphere – the “global carbon budget” – is important to better understand the global carbon cycle, support the development of climate policies, and project future climate change. Here we describe data sets and methodology to quantify the five major components of the global carbon budget and their uncertainties. CO2 emissions from fossil fuels and industry (EFF) are based on energy statistics and cement production data, respectively, while emissions from land-use change (ELUC), mainly deforestation, are based on land-cover change data and bookkeeping models. The global atmospheric CO2 concentration is measured directly and its rate of growth (GATM) is computed from the annual changes in concentration. The ocean CO2 sink (SOCEAN) and terrestrial CO2 sink (SLAND) are estimated with global process models constrained by observations. The resulting carbon budget imbalance (BIM), the difference between the estimated total emissions and the estimated changes in the atmosphere, ocean, and terrestrial biosphere, is a measure of imperfect data and understanding of the contemporary carbon cycle. All uncertainties are reported as ±1σ . For the last decade available (2007–2016), EFF was 9.4 ± 0.5 GtC yr−1, ELUC 1.3 ± 0.7 GtC yr−1, GATM 4.7 ± 0.1 GtC yr−1, SOCEAN 2.4 ± 0.5 GtC yr−1, and SLAND 3.0 ± 0.8 GtC yr−1, with a budget imbalance BIM of 0.6 GtC yr−1 indicating overestimated emissions and/or underestimated sinks. For year 2016 alone, the growth in EFF was approximately zero and emissions remained at 9.9 ± 0.5 GtC yr−1. Also for 2016, ELUC was 1.3 ± 0.7 GtC yr−1, GATM was 6.1 ± 0.2 GtC yr−1, SOCEAN was 2.6 ± 0.5 GtC yr−1, and SLAND was 2.7 ± 1.0 GtC yr−1, with a small BIM of −0.3 GtC. GATM continued to be higher in 2016 compared to the past decade (2007–2016), reflecting in part the high fossil emissions and the small SLAND consistent with El Niño conditions. The global atmospheric CO2 concentration reached 402.8 ± 0.1 ppm averaged over 2016. For 2017, preliminary data for the first 6–9 months indicate a renewed growth in EFF of +2.0 \% (range of 0.8 to 3.0 \%) based on national emissions projections for China, USA, and India, and projections of gross domestic product (GDP) corrected for recent changes in the carbon intensity of the economy for the rest of the world. This living data update documents changes in the methods and data sets used in this new global carbon budget compared with previous publications of this data set (Le Quéré et al., 2016, 2015b, a, 2014, 2013). All results presented here can be downloaded from https://doi.org/10.18160/GCP-2017 (GCP, 2017).},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Earth System Science Data},
	author = {Le Quéré, Corinne and Andrew, Robbie M. and Friedlingstein, Pierre and Sitch, Stephen and Pongratz, Julia and Manning, Andrew C. and Korsbakken, Jan Ivar and Peters, Glen P. and Canadell, Josep G. and Jackson, Robert B. and Boden, Thomas A. and Tans, Pieter P. and Andrews, Oliver D. and Arora, Vivek K. and Bakker, Dorothee C. E. and Barbero, Leticia and Becker, Meike and Betts, Richard A. and Bopp, Laurent and Chevallier, Frédéric and Chini, Louise P. and Ciais, Philippe and Cosca, Catherine E. and Cross, Jessica and Currie, Kim and Gasser, Thomas and Harris, Ian and Hauck, Judith and Haverd, Vanessa and Houghton, Richard A. and Hunt, Christopher W. and Hurtt, George and Ilyina, Tatiana and Jain, Atul K. and Kato, Etsushi and Kautz, Markus and Keeling, Ralph F. and Klein Goldewijk, Kees and Körtzinger, Arne and Landschützer, Peter and Lefèvre, Nathalie and Lenton, Andrew and Lienert, Sebastian and Lima, Ivan and Lombardozzi, Danica and Metzl, Nicolas and Millero, Frank and Monteiro, Pedro M. S. and Munro, David R. and Nabel, Julia E. M. S. and Nakaoka, Shin-ichiro and Nojiri, Yukihiro and Padin, X. Antonio and Peregon, Anna and Pfeil, Benjamin and Pierrot, Denis and Poulter, Benjamin and Rehder, Gregor and Reimer, Janet and Rödenbeck, Christian and Schwinger, Jörg and Séférian, Roland and Skjelvan, Ingunn and Stocker, Benjamin D. and Tian, Hanqin and Tilbrook, Bronte and Tubiello, Francesco N. and van der Laan-Luijkx, Ingrid T. and van der Werf, Guido R. and van Heuven, Steven and Viovy, Nicolas and Vuichard, Nicolas and Walker, Anthony P. and Watson, Andrew J. and Wiltshire, Andrew J. and Zaehle, Sönke and Zhu, Dan},
	month = mar,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {405--448}
}

@article{lemckert_physical_2004,
	title = {Physical {Properties} of {Turbulent} {Benthic} {Boundary} {Layers} {Generated} by {Internal} {Waves}},
	volume = {130},
	issn = {0733-9429, 1943-7900},
	url = {http://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733-9429%282004%29130%3A1%2858%29},
	doi = {10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2004)130:1(58)},
	abstract = {Physical properties of active turbulent benthic boundary layers ͑TBBL͒ generated by basin scale internal waves were studied within a Northern hemisphere thermally stratified lake. A microstructure profiler was used to measure the nature of the turbulence within the TBBLs while a series of thermistor chains were used to monitor the thermal structure of the lake. It was observed that a wind-driven anticlockwise diurnal-period vertical mode one Kelvin wave generated large scale motions within the water column, and that the interactions between this wave and the sloping lakebed induced TBBLs. A simple model, based on potential energy change and boundary shearing, was shown to describe the mean TBBL thickness.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Hydraulic Engineering},
	author = {Lemckert, Charles and Antenucci, Jason and Saggio, Angelo and Imberger, Jorg},
	month = jan,
	year = {2004},
	pages = {58--69}
}

@article{ledwell_comment_2018,
	title = {Comment on “{Abyssal} {Upwelling} and {Downwelling} {Driven} by {Near}-{Boundary} {Mixing}”},
	volume = {48},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-17-0089.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-17-0089.1},
	abstract = {McDougall and Ferrari have estimated the global deep upward diapycnal flow in the boundary layer overlying continental slopes that must balance both downward diapycnal flow in the deep interior and the formation of bottom water around Antarctica. The decrease of perimeter of isopycnal surfaces with depth and the observed decay with height above bottom of turbulent dissipation in the deep ocean play a key role in their estimate. They argue that because the perimeter of seamounts increases with depth, the net effect of mixing around seamounts is to produce net downward diapycnal flow. While this is true along much of a seamount, it is shown here that diapycnal flow of the densest water around the seamount is upward, with buoyancy being transferred from water just above. The same is true for midocean ridges, whose perimeter is constant with depth. It is argued that mixing around seamounts and especially midocean ridges contributes positively to the global deep overturning circulation, reducing the amount of turbulence demanded over the continental slopes to balance the buoyancy budget for the bottom and deep water.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Ledwell, James R.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {739--748}
}

@article{lauderdale_wind-driven_2013,
	title = {Wind-driven changes in {Southern} {Ocean} residual circulation, ocean carbon reservoirs and atmospheric {CO2}},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {0930-7575, 1432-0894},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00382-012-1650-3},
	doi = {10.1007/s00382-012-1650-3},
	language = {en},
	number = {7-8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Lauderdale, Jonathan M. and Garabato, Alberto C. Naveira and Oliver, Kevin I. C. and Follows, Michael J. and Williams, Richard G.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {2145--2164}
}

@article{latif_is_2006,
	title = {Is the {Thermohaline} {Circulation} {Changing}?},
	volume = {19},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI3876.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI3876.1},
	abstract = {Analyses of ocean observations and model simulations suggest that there have been considerable changes in the thermohaline circulation (THC) during the last century. These changes are likely to be the result of natural multidecadal climate variability and are driven by low-frequency variations of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) through changes in Labrador Sea convection. Indications of a sustained THC weakening are not seen during the last few decades. Instead, a strengthening since the 1980s is observed. The combined assessment of ocean hydrography data and model results indicates that the expected anthropogenic weakening of the THC will remain within the range of natural variability during the next several decades.},
	language = {en},
	number = {18},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Latif, M. and Böning, C. and Willebrand, J. and Biastoch, A. and Dengg, J. and Keenlyside, N. and Schweckendiek, U. and Madec, G.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2006},
	pages = {4631--4637}
}

@article{kunze_internal-wave-driven_2017,
	title = {The {Internal}-{Wave}-{Driven} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0142.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0142.1},
	abstract = {The upwelling diapycnal limb of the ocean’s meridional overturning circulation is driven by divergence of diabatic turbulent buoyancy fluxes hw0b0i across density surfaces. A global assessment of zonally averaged internal-wave-driven turbulent diapycnal buoyancy fluxes from a strain-based finescale parameterization is used to infer mean diapycnal transports in the interior and near the bottom boundary. Bulk interior diabatic transports dominate above 2500-m depth (buoyancies jBj 5 ggn/r0 , 0.267 m s22, neutral densities gn , 27.9 kg m23), upwelling at 10–11 Sv (1 Sv 5 106 m3 s21); 2, 5, and 3–4 Sv in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic, respectively, but are weak in the abyss. Boundary water-mass transformations peak at 18–25 Sv (4–6, 10–14, and 4–5 Sv in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic) near buoyancy jBj ; 0.268 m s22 (gn ; 28.1 kg m23, 4500-m depth) between bottom and lower deep waters, consistent with published 20–30-Sv global Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) transport estimates. Interior transports above 2500-m depth fall below inverse estimates, consistent with a more adiabatic ocean interior where diapycnal mixing occurs at Southern Hemisphere high-latitude surface density outcrops.},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Kunze, Eric},
	month = nov,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {2673--2689}
}

@article{kunze_internal-wave-driven_2017-1,
	title = {Internal-{Wave}-{Driven} {Mixing}: {Global} {Geography} and {Budgets}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	shorttitle = {Internal-{Wave}-{Driven} {Mixing}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0141.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0141.1},
	abstract = {Internal-wave-driven dissipation rates « and diapycnal diffusivities K are inferred globally using a finescale parameterization based on vertical strain applied to ;30 000 hydrographic casts. Global dissipations are 2.0 6 0.6 TW, consistent with internal wave power sources of 2.1 6 0.7 TW from tides and wind. Vertically integrated dissipation rates vary by three to four orders of magnitude with elevated values over abrupt topography in the western Indian and Pacific as well as midocean slow spreading ridges, consistent with internal tide sources. But dependence on bottom forcing is much weaker than linear wave generation theory, pointing to horizontal dispersion by internal waves and relatively little local dissipation when forcing is strong. Stratified turbulent bottom boundary layer thickness variability is not consistent with OGCM parameterizations of tidal mixing. Average diffusivities K 5 (0.3–0.4) 3 1024 m2 s21 depend only weakly on depth, indicating that « 5 KN2/g scales as N2 such that the bulk of the dissipation is in the pycnocline and less than 0.08-TW dissipation below 2000-m depth. Average diffusivities K approach 1024 m2 s21 in the bottom 500 meters above bottom (mab) in height above bottom coordinates with a 2000-m e-folding scale. Average dissipation rates « are 1029 W kg21 within 500 mab then diminish to background deep values of 0.15 3 1029 W kg21 by 1000 mab. No incontrovertible support is found for high dissipation rates in Antarctic Circumpolar Currents or parametric subharmonic instability being a significant pathway to elevated dissipation rates for semidiurnal or diurnal internal tides equatorward of 288 and 148 latitudes, respectively, although elevated K is found about 308 latitude in the North and South Pacific.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Kunze, Eric},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {1325--1345}
}

@article{kunze_turbulent_2012,
	title = {Turbulent {Mixing} and {Exchange} with {Interior} {Waters} on {Sloping} {Boundaries}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-11-075.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-11-075.1},
	abstract = {Microstructure measurements along the axes of Monterey and Soquel Submarine Canyons reveal 200–300-m-thick well-stratified turbulent near-bottom layers with average turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rates h«i 5 4 3 1028 W kg21 and eddy diffusivities K 5 16 3 1024 m2 s21 (assuming mixing efficiency g 5 0.2) to at least thalweg depths of 1200 m. Turbulent dissipation rates are an order of magnitude lower in overlying waters, whereas buoyancy frequencies are only 25\% higher. Well-mixed bottom boundary layer thicknesses hN are an order of magnitude thinner than the stratified turbulent layer (hN ( h«). Because well-stratified turbulent layers are commonly observed above slopes, arguments that mixing efficiency should be reduced on sloping boundaries do not hold in cases of energetic internal-wave generation or interaction with topography. An advective–diffusive balance is used to infer velocities and transports, predicting horizontal upslope flows of 10–50 m day21. Extrapolating this estimate globally suggests that canyon turbulence may contribute 2–3 times as much diapycnal transport to the World Ocean as interior mixing. The upcanyon turbulence-driven transports are not uniform, and the resulting upslope convergences will drive exchange between the turbulent layer and more quiescent interior. Predicted density surfaces of detrainment and entrainment are consistent with observed isopycnals of intermediate nepheloid and clear layers. These data demonstrate that turbulent mixing dynamics on sloping topography are fundamentally 2D or 3D in the ocean, so they cannot be accurately described by 1D models.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Kunze, Eric and MacKay, Chris and McPhee-Shaw, Erika E. and Morrice, Katie and Girton, James B. and Terker, Samantha R.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {910--927}
}

@article{kuhlbrodt_driving_2007,
	title = {On the driving processes of the {Atlantic} meridional overturning circulation},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {8755-1209},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2004RG000166},
	doi = {10.1029/2004RG000166},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Kuhlbrodt, T. and Griesel, A. and Montoya, M. and Levermann, A. and Hofmann, M. and Rahmstorf, S.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2007}
}

@article{kostov_impact_2014,
	title = {Impact of the {Atlantic} meridional overturning circulation on ocean heat storage and transient climate change},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2013GL058998},
	doi = {10.1002/2013GL058998},
	abstract = {We propose here that the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) plays an important role in setting the effective heat capacity of the World Ocean and thus impacts the pace of transient climate change. The depth and strength of AMOC are shown to be strongly correlated with the depth of heat storage across a suite of state-of-the-art general circulation models (GCMs). In those models with a deeper and stronger AMOC, a smaller portion of the heat anomaly remains in the ocean mixed layer, and consequently, the surface temperature response is delayed. Representations of AMOC differ vastly across the GCMs, providing a major source of intermodel spread in the sea surface temperature (SST) response. A two-layer model fit to the GCMs is used to demonstrate that the intermodel spread in SSTs due to variations in the ocean’s effective heat capacity is significant but smaller than the spread due to climate feedbacks.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Kostov, Yavor and Armour, Kyle C. and Marshall, John},
	month = mar,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {2108--2116}
}

@article{kossin_hurricane_2017,
	title = {Hurricane intensification along {United} {States} coast suppressed during active hurricane periods},
	volume = {541},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature20783},
	doi = {10.1038/nature20783},
	language = {en},
	number = {7637},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Kossin, James P.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {390--393}
}

@article{klocker_influence_2010,
	title = {Influence of the {Nonlinear} {Equation} of {State} on {Global} {Estimates} of {Dianeutral} {Advection} and {Diffusion}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JPO4303.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JPO4303.1},
	abstract = {Recent work on the global overturning circulation and its energetics assumes that processes caused by nonlinearities of the equation of state of seawater are negligible. Nonlinear processes such as cabbeling and thermobaricity cause diapycnal motion as a consequence of isopycnal mixing. The nonlinear equation of state also causes the helical nature of neutral trajectories; as a consequence of this helical nature, it is not possible to define a continuous ‘‘density’’ surface that aligns with neutral tangent planes. The result is an additional diapycnal advection, which needs to be accounted for in water-mass analysis. In this paper, the authors take advantage of new techniques in constructing very accurate continuous density surfaces to more precisely estimate isopycnal and diapycnal processes caused by the nonlinear equation of state. They then quantify the diapycnal advection due to each of these nonlinear processes and show that they lead in total to a significant downward diapycnal advection, particularly in the Southern Ocean. The nonlinear processes are therefore another source of dense water formation in addition to high-latitude convection. To maintain the abyssal stratification in the global ocean, these dense water masses have to be brought back toward surface layers, and this can occur by either diabatic or adiabatic processes. Including these nonlinear processes into the advection–diffusion balance, the authors show that observed diapycnal diffusivities are unlikely to be able to support the amount of dense water produced in the global ocean, thus placing more importance on the adiabatic way of bringing the deep waters back to the surface.},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Klocker, Andreas and McDougall, Trevor J.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {1690--1709}
}

@article{klocker_quantifying_2010,
	title = {Quantifying the {Consequences} of the {Ill}-{Defined} {Nature} of {Neutral} {Surfaces}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2009JPO4212.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JPO4212.1},
	abstract = {In the absence of diapycnal mixing processes, fluid parcels move in directions along which they do not encounter buoyant forces. These directions define the local neutral tangent plane. Because of the nonlinear nature of the equation of state of seawater, these neutral tangent planes cannot be connected globally to form a welldefined surface in three-dimensional space; that is, continuous ‘‘neutral surfaces’’ do not exist. This inability to form well-defined neutral surfaces implies that neutral trajectories are helical. Consequently, even in the absence of diapycnal mixing processes, fluid trajectories penetrate through any ‘‘density’’ surface. This process amounts to an extra mechanism that achieves mean vertical advection through any continuous surface such as surfaces of constant potential density or neutral density. That is, the helical nature of neutral trajectories causes this additional diasurface velocity. A water-mass analysis performed with respect to continuous density surfaces will have part of its diapycnal advection due to this diasurface advection process. Hence, this additional diasurface advection should be accounted for when attributing observed water-mass changes to mixing processes. Here, the authors quantify this component of the total diasurface velocity and show that locally it can be the same order of magnitude as diasurface velocities produced by other mixing processes, particularly in the Southern Ocean. The magnitude of this diasurface advection is proportional to the ocean’s neutral helicity, which is observed to be quite small in today’s ocean. The authors also use a perturbation experiment to show that the ocean rapidly readjusts to its present state of small neutral helicity, even if perturbed significantly. Additionally, the authors show how seasonal (rather than spatial) changes in the ocean’s hydrography can generate a similar vertical advection process. This process is described here for the first time; although the vertical advection due to this process is small, it helps to understand water-mass transformation on density surfaces.},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Klocker, Andreas and McDougall, Trevor J.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {1866--1880}
}

@article{kiehl_earths_1997,
	title = {Earth's {Annual} {Global} {Mean} {Energy} {Budget}},
	volume = {78},
	issn = {0003-0007, 1520-0477},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0477%281997%29078%3C0197%3AEAGMEB%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<0197:EAGMEB>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The purpose of this paper is to put forward a new estimate, in the context of previous assessments, of the annual global mean energy budget. A description is provided of the source of each component to this budget. The top-ofatmosphere shortwave and longwave flux of energy is constrained by satellite observations. Partitioning of the radiative energy throughout the atmosphere is achieved through the use of detailed radiation models for both the longwave and shortwave spectral regions. Spectral features of shortwave and longwave fluxes at both the top and surface of the earth’s system are presented. The longwave radiative forcing of the climate system for both clear (125 W m−2) and cloudy (155 W m−2) conditions are discussed. The authors find that for the clear sky case the contribution due to water vapor to the total longwave radiative forcing is 75 W m−2, while for carbon dioxide it is 32 W m−2. Clouds alter these values, and the effects of clouds on both the longwave and shortwave budget are addressed. In particular, the shielding effect by clouds on absorption and emission by water vapor is as large as the direct cloud forcing. Because the net surface heat budget must balance, the radiative fluxes constrain the sum of the sensible and latent heat fluxes, which can also be estimated independently.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {Kiehl, J. T. and Trenberth, Kevin E.},
	month = feb,
	year = {1997},
	pages = {197--208}
}

@article{khazendar_rapid_2016,
	title = {Rapid submarine ice melting in the grounding zones of ice shelves in {West} {Antarctica}},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms13243},
	doi = {10.1038/ncomms13243},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Communications},
	author = {Khazendar, Ala and Rignot, Eric and Schroeder, Dustin M. and Seroussi, Helene and Schodlok, Michael P. and Scheuchl, Bernd and Mouginot, Jeremie and Sutterley, Tyler C. and Velicogna, Isabella},
	month = dec,
	year = {2016}
}

@article{kawabe_pacific_2010,
	title = {Pacific ocean circulation based on observation},
	volume = {66},
	issn = {0916-8370, 1573-868X},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10872-010-0034-8},
	doi = {10.1007/s10872-010-0034-8},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Oceanography},
	author = {Kawabe, Masaki and Fujio, Shinzou},
	month = jun,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {389--403}
}

@article{cook_consensus_2016,
	title = {Consensus on consensus: a synthesis of consensus estimates on human-caused global warming},
	volume = {11},
	issn = {1748-9326},
	shorttitle = {Consensus on consensus},
	url = {http://stacks.iop.org/1748-9326/11/i=4/a=048002?key=crossref.80d294a6c5d3b7882bc7dc12487e9f39},
	doi = {10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/048002},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Environmental Research Letters},
	author = {Cook, John and Oreskes, Naomi and Doran, Peter T and Anderegg, William R L and Verheggen, Bart and Maibach, Ed W and Carlton, J Stuart and Lewandowsky, Stephan and Skuce, Andrew G and Green, Sarah A and Nuccitelli, Dana and Jacobs, Peter and Richardson, Mark and Winkler, Bärbel and Painting, Rob and Rice, Ken},
	month = apr,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {048002}
}

@article{karl_possible_2015,
	title = {Possible artifacts of data biases in the recent global surface warming hiatus},
	volume = {348},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.aaa5632},
	doi = {10.1126/science.aaa5632},
	language = {en},
	number = {6242},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Karl, T. R. and Arguez, A. and Huang, B. and Lawrimore, J. H. and McMahon, J. R. and Menne, M. J. and Peterson, T. C. and Vose, R. S. and Zhang, H.-M.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {1469--1472}
}

@article{johnson_global_2004,
	title = {Global {Teleconnections} of {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation} {Anomalies}},
	volume = {34},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282004%29034%3C1702%3AGTOMOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2004)034<1702:GTOMOC>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {There is a wide range of evidence from both models and palaeoclimatic data that indicates the possibility of abrupt changes in the oceanic meridional overturning circulation (MOC). However, much of our dynamical understanding of the MOC comes from steady-state models that rely upon the assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium and are therefore only valid on millennial time scales. Here a dynamical model for the global teleconnections of MOC anomalies on annual to multidecadal time scales is developed. It is based on a linear theory for the propagation of zonally integrated meridional transport anomalies in a reduced-gravity ocean and allows for multiple ocean basins connected by a circumpolar channel to the south. The theory demonstrates that the equator acts as a low-pass filter to MOC anomalies. As a consequence, MOC anomalies on decadal and shorter time scales are confined to the hemispheric basin in which they are generated and have little impact on the remainder of the global ocean. The linear theory is compared with the results of a global nonlinear numerical integration, which it reproduces to a good approximation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Johnson, Helen L. and Marshall, David P.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2004},
	pages = {1702--1722}
}

@article{jayne_connections_2004,
	title = {Connections {Between} {Ocean} {Bottom} {Topography} and {Earth}'s {Climate}},
	volume = {17},
	issn = {10428275},
	url = {https://tos.org/oceanography/article/connections-between-ocean-bottom-topography-and-earthsclimate},
	doi = {10.5670/oceanog.2004.68},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Oceanography},
	author = {Jayne, Steven and St. Laurent, Louis and Gille, Sarah},
	month = mar,
	year = {2004},
	pages = {65--74}
}

@article{jansen_glacial_2017,
	title = {Glacial ocean circulation and stratification explained by reduced atmospheric temperature},
	volume = {114},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1610438113},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1610438113},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Jansen, Malte F.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {45--50}
}

@article{jalali_accuracy_2017,
	title = {On the {Accuracy} of {Overturn}-{Based} {Estimates} of {Turbulent} {Dissipation} at {Rough} {Topography}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-15-0169.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-15-0169.1},
	abstract = {Evidence in support of overturn-based methods, often used to infer turbulent dissipation rate from density profiles, is typically from regions with weaker turbulence than that at rough-topography hotspots. The present work uses direct numerical simulations (DNS) of an idealized problem of sloping topography as well as highresolution large-eddy simulation (LES) of turbulent flow at more realistic topography in order to investigate the accuracy of overturn-based methods in sites with internal wave breaking. Two methods are assessed: Thorpe sorting, where the overturn length LT is based on local distortion of measured density from the background, and inversion sorting, where the inversion length scale LI measures the statically unstable local region. The overturn boundaries are different between the two methods. Thorpe sorting leads to an order of magnitude overestimate of the turbulent dissipation in the DNS during large convective overturn events when inversion sorting is more accurate. The LES of steep, realistic topography leads to a similar conclusion of a substantial overestimate of dissipation by Thorpe sorting. Energy arguments explain the better performance of inversion sorting in convectively driven turbulence and the better performance of Thorpe sorting in sheardriven turbulence.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Jalali, Masoud and Chalamalla, Vamsi K. and Sarkar, Sutanu},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {513--532}
}

@article{jackett_neutral_1997,
	title = {A {Neutral} {Density} {Variable} for the {World}’s {Oceans}},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281997%29027%3C0237%3AANDVFT%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1997)027<0237:ANDVFT>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The use of density surfaces in the analysis of oceanographic data and in models of the ocean circulation is widespread. The present best method of fitting these isopycnal surfaces to hydrographic data is based on a linked sequence of potential density surfaces referred to a discrete set of reference pressures. This method is both time consuming and cumbersome in its implementation. In this paper the authors introduce a new density variable, neutral density ␥n, which is a continuous analog of these discretely referenced potential density surfaces. The level surfaces of ␥n form neutral surfaces, which are the most appropriate surfaces within which an ocean model’s calculations should be performed or analyzed. The authors have developed a computational algorithm for evaluating ␥n from a given hydrographic observation so that the formation of neutral density surfaces requires a simple call to a computational function. Neutral density is of necessity not only a function of the three state variables: salinity, temperature, and pressure, but also of longitude and latitude. The spatial dependence of ␥n is achieved by accurately labeling a global hydrographic dataset with neutral density. Arbitrary hydrographic data can then be labeled with reference to this global ␥n field. The global dataset is derived from the Levitus climatology of the world’s oceans, with minor modifications made to ensure static stability and an adequate representation of the densest seawater. An initial field of ␥n is obtained by solving, using a combination of numerical techniques, a system of differential equations that describe the fundamental neutral surface property. This global field of ␥n values is further iterated in the characteristic coordinate system of the neutral surfaces to reduce any errors incurred during this solution procedure and to distribute the inherent path-dependent error associated with the definition of neutral surfaces over the entire globe. Comparisons are made between neutral surfaces calculated from ␥n and the present best isopycnal surfaces along independent sections of hydrographic data. The development of this neutral density variable increases the accuracy of the best-practice isopycnal surfaces currently in use but, more importantly, provides oceanographers with a much easier method of fitting such surfaces to hydrographic data.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Jackett, David R. and McDougall, Trevor J.},
	month = feb,
	year = {1997},
	pages = {237--263}
}

@article{jacobson_100_2017,
	title = {100\% {Clean} and {Renewable} {Wind}, {Water}, and {Sunlight} {All}-{Sector} {Energy} {Roadmaps} for 139 {Countries} of the {World}},
	volume = {1},
	issn = {25424351},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2542435117300120},
	doi = {10.1016/j.joule.2017.07.005},
	abstract = {We develop roadmaps to transform the all-purpose energy infrastructures (electricity, transportation, heating/cooling, industry, agriculture/forestry/fishing) of 139 countries to ones powered by wind, water, and sunlight (WWS). The roadmaps envision 80\% conversion by 2030 and 100\% by 2050. WWS not only replaces business-as-usual (BAU) power, but also reduces it 42.5\% because the work: energy ratio of WWS electricity exceeds that of combustion (23.0\%), WWS requires no mining, transporting, or processing of fuels (12.6\%), and WWS end-use efficiency is assumed to exceed that of BAU (6.9\%). Converting may create 24.3 million more permanent, full-time jobs than jobs lost. It may avoid 4.6 million/year premature air-pollution deaths today and 3.5 million/year in 2050; \$22.8 trillion/year (12.7 ¢/kWh-BAU-all-energy) in 2050 air-pollution costs; and \$28.5 trillion/year (15.8 ¢/kWh-BAU-all-energy) in 2050 climate costs. Transitioning should also stabilize energy prices because fuel costs are zero, reduce power disruption and increase access to energy by decentralizing power, and avoid 1.5C global warming.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Joule},
	author = {Jacobson, Mark Z. and Delucchi, Mark A. and Bauer, Zack A.F. and Goodman, Savannah C. and Chapman, William E. and Cameron, Mary A. and Bozonnat, Cedric and Chobadi, Liat and Clonts, Hailey A. and Enevoldsen, Peter and Erwin, Jenny R. and Fobi, Simone N. and Goldstrom, Owen K. and Hennessy, Eleanor M. and Liu, Jingyi and Lo, Jonathan and Meyer, Clayton B. and Morris, Sean B. and Moy, Kevin R. and O'Neill, Patrick L. and Petkov, Ivalin and Redfern, Stephanie and Schucker, Robin and Sontag, Michael A. and Wang, Jingfan and Weiner, Eric and Yachanin, Alexander S.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {108--121}
}

@article{ivey_role_1987,
	title = {The role of boundary mixing in the deep ocean},
	volume = {92},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC092iC11p11873},
	doi = {10.1029/JC092iC11p11873},
	language = {en},
	number = {C11},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Ivey, G. N.},
	year = {1987},
	pages = {11873}
}

@article{dokken_technical_nodate,
	title = {Technical {Summary}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Dokken, David},
	pages = {60}
}

@book{solomon_climate_2007,
	address = {Cambridge ; New York},
	title = {Climate change 2007: the physical science basis: contribution of {Working} {Group} {I} to the {Fourth} {Assessment} {Report} of the {Intergovernmental} {Panel} on {Climate} {Change}},
	isbn = {978-0-521-88009-1 978-0-521-70596-7},
	shorttitle = {Climate change 2007},
	language = {en},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	editor = {Solomon, Susan and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change},
	year = {2007},
	note = {OCLC: ocn132298563},
	keywords = {Climatic changes, Environmental aspects, Government policy, Greenhouse gas mitigation, Greenhouse gases, International cooperation}
}

@article{cooper_climate_2002,
	title = {Climate {Change} 2001: {The} {Scientific} {Basis}},
	volume = {81},
	issn = {00157120},
	shorttitle = {Climate {Change} 2001},
	url = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/20033020?origin=crossref},
	doi = {10.2307/20033020},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Foreign Affairs},
	author = {Cooper, Richard N. and Houghton, J. T. and McCarthy, James J. and Metz, Bert},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {208}
}

@article{the_imbie_team_mass_2018,
	title = {Mass balance of the {Antarctic} {Ice} {Sheet} from 1992 to 2017},
	volume = {558},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0179-y},
	doi = {10.1038/s41586-018-0179-y},
	language = {en},
	number = {7709},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {{The IMBIE team}},
	month = jun,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {219--222}
}

@article{hulme_origin_2009,
	title = {On the origin of ‘the greenhouse effect’: {John} {Tyndall}'s 1859 interrogation of nature},
	volume = {64},
	issn = {00431656, 14778696},
	shorttitle = {On the origin of ‘the greenhouse effect’},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/wea.386},
	doi = {10.1002/wea.386},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Weather},
	author = {Hulme, Mike},
	month = may,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {121--123}
}

@article{huybers_origins_nodate,
	title = {On the {Origins} of the {Ice} {Ages}: {Insolation} {Forcing}, {Age} {Models}, and {Nonlinear} {Climate} {Change}},
	abstract = {This thesis revolves about the relationship between orbital forcing and climate variability. To place paleo and modern climate variability in context, the spectrum of temperature variability is estimated from time-scales of months to hundreds of thousands of years using a patchwork of proxy and instrumental records. There is an energetic background continuum and rich spatial structure associated with temperature variability which both scale according to simple spectral power-laws. To complement the spatial and temporal analysis of temperature variability, a description of the full insolation forcing is also developed using Legendre polynomials to represent the spatial modes of variability and singular vectors to represent seasonal and long-term changes. The leading four spatial and temporal modes describe over 99\% of the insolation variability making this a relatively simple and compact description of the full insolation forcing. Particular attention is paid to the insolation variations resulting from the precession of the equinoxes. There is no mean annual insolation variability associated with precession — precession only modulates the seasonal cycle. Nonlinear rectification of the seasonal cycle generates precession-period variability, and such rectification naturally occurs in the climate system but also results from the seasonality inherent to many climate proxies. One must distinguish this latter instrumental effect from true climate responses. Another potential source of spurious low-frequency variability results from the stretching and squeezing of an age-model so that noise in a record is made to align with an orbital signal. Furthermore, and contrary to assertions made elsewhere, such orbital-tuning can also generate an eccentricity-like amplitude modulation in records that have been narrow-band-pass filtered over the precession bands.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Huybers, Peter},
	pages = {245}
}

@article{huber_anthropogenic_2012,
	title = {Anthropogenic and natural warming inferred from changes in {Earth}’s energy balance},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1327},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo1327},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Huber, Markus and Knutti, Reto},
	month = jan,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {31--36}
}

@article{huang_temperature_2000,
	title = {Temperature trends over the past five centuries reconstructed from borehole temperatures},
	volume = {403},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/35001556},
	doi = {10.1038/35001556},
	language = {en},
	number = {6771},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Huang, Shaopeng and Pollack, Henry N. and Shen, Po-Yu},
	month = feb,
	year = {2000},
	pages = {756--758}
}

@article{homoky_deep_2017,
	title = {Deep ocean iron balance: {Biogeochemistry}},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	shorttitle = {Deep ocean iron balance},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2908},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2908},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Homoky, William B.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {162--163}
}

@article{heuze_antarctic_nodate,
	title = {Antarctic {Bottom} {Water} in {CMIP5} models: characteristics, formation, evolution},
	language = {en},
	author = {Heuze, Celine},
	pages = {226}
}

@article{helfrich_nonlinear_2008,
	title = {Nonlinear {Disintegration} of the {Internal} {Tide}},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2007JPO3826.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2007JPO3826.1},
	abstract = {The disintegration of a first-mode internal tide into shorter solitary-like waves is considered. Since observations frequently show both tides and waves with amplitudes beyond the restrictions of weakly nonlinear theory, the evolution is studied using a fully nonlinear, weakly nonhydrostatic two-layer theory that includes rotation. In the hydrostatic limit, the governing equations have periodic, nonlinear inertia–gravity solutions that are explored as models of the nonlinear internal tide. These long waves are shown to be robust to weak nonhydrostatic effects. Numerical solutions show that the disintegration of an initial sinusoidal linear internal tide is closely linked to the presence of these nonlinear waves. The initial tide steepens due to nonlinearity and sheds energy into short solitary waves. The disintegration is halted as the longwave part of the solution settles onto a state close to one of the nonlinear hydrostatic solutions, with the short solitary waves superimposed. The degree of disintegration is a function of initial amplitude of the tide and the properties of the underlying nonlinear hydrostatic solutions, which, depending on stratification and tidal frequency, exist only for a finite range of amplitudes (or energies). There is a lower threshold below which no short solitary waves are produced. However, for initial amplitudes above another threshold, given approximately by the energy of the limiting nonlinear hydrostatic inertia–gravity wave, most of the initial tidal energy goes into solitary waves. Recent observations in the South China Sea are briefly discussed.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Helfrich, Karl R. and Grimshaw, Roger H. J.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {686--701}
}

@article{helfrich_rotating_2003,
	title = {Rotating {Hydraulics} and {Upstream} {Basin} {Circulation}},
	volume = {33},
	abstract = {The flow in a source-fed f -plane basin drained through a strait is explored using a single-layer (reduced gravity) shallow-water numerical model that resolves the hydraulic flow within the strait. The steady upstream basin circulation is found to be sensitive to the nature of the mass source (uniform downwelling, localized downwelling, or boundary inflow). In contrast, the hydraulically controlled flow in the strait is nearly independent of the basin circulation and agrees very well with the Gill-theory solution obtained using the strait geometry and the numerically determined average potential vorticity in the strait entrance region. This Gill solution, however, gives a unique value of the upstream boundary layer flux splitting that does not agree with any of the full numerical solutions. The coupled basin–strait system is shown to select an average overflow potential vorticity corresponding to the Gill solution with maximum fluid depth on the strait boundaries. This state also corresponds to one of maximal upstream basin potential energy. This result is robust to changes in the basin geometry, strait characteristics, the dissipation parameter (linear drag), and the net mass flux. The nonunique relation between basin conditions and overflow transport is significant with regard to deep overflow transport monitoring. It is shown that the potential vorticity selection leads to overflow, or ‘‘weir,’’ transport relations that are well approximated by the zero potential vorticity theory. However, accurate estimates of the transport can only be obtained if conditions within the strait entrance region, and not the basin, are used.},
	language = {en},
	journal = {JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY},
	author = {Helfrich, Karl R and Pratt, Lawrence J},
	year = {2003},
	pages = {13}
}

@article{held_robust_2006,
	title = {Robust {Responses} of the {Hydrological} {Cycle} to {Global} {Warming}},
	volume = {19},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI3990.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI3990.1},
	abstract = {Using the climate change experiments generated for the Fourth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this study examines some aspects of the changes in the hydrological cycle that are robust across the models. These responses include the decrease in convective mass fluxes, the increase in horizontal moisture transport, the associated enhancement of the pattern of evaporation minus precipitation and its temporal variance, and the decrease in the horizontal sensible heat transport in the extratropics. A surprising finding is that a robust decrease in extratropical sensible heat transport is found only in the equilibrium climate response, as estimated in slab ocean responses to the doubling of CO2, and not in transient climate change scenarios. All of these robust responses are consequences of the increase in lower-tropospheric water vapor.},
	language = {en},
	number = {21},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Held, Isaac M. and Soden, Brian J.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2006},
	pages = {5686--5699}
}

@article{held_w_2000,
	title = {W {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{ATER}{\textless}/span{\textgreater} {V} {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{APOR}{\textless}/span{\textgreater} {F} {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{EEDBACK} {AND}{\textless}/span{\textgreater} {G} {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{LOBAL}{\textless}/span{\textgreater} {W} {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{ARMING}{\textless}/span{\textgreater}},
	volume = {25},
	issn = {1056-3466},
	shorttitle = {W {\textless}span style="font-variant},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.441},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.441},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Annual Review of Energy and the Environment},
	author = {Held, Isaac M. and Soden, Brian J.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2000},
	pages = {441--475}
}

@article{hasenclever_sea_2017,
	title = {Sea level fall during glaciation stabilized atmospheric {CO2} by enhanced volcanic degassing},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/ncomms15867},
	doi = {10.1038/ncomms15867},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Communications},
	author = {Hasenclever, Jörg and Knorr, Gregor and Rüpke, Lars H. and Köhler, Peter and Morgan, Jason and Garofalo, Kristin and Barker, Stephen and Lohmann, Gerrit and Hall, Ian R.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {15867}
}

@article{he_northern_2013,
	title = {Northern {Hemisphere} forcing of {Southern} {Hemisphere} climate during the last deglaciation},
	volume = {494},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature11822},
	doi = {10.1038/nature11822},
	language = {en},
	number = {7435},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {He, Feng and Shakun, Jeremy D. and Clark, Peter U. and Carlson, Anders E. and Liu, Zhengyu and Otto-Bliesner, Bette L. and Kutzbach, John E.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {81--85}
}

@article{hansen_slippery_2005,
	title = {A slippery slope: {How} much global warming constitutes ?dangerous anthropogenic interference??: {An} {Editorial} {Essay}},
	volume = {68},
	issn = {0165-0009, 1573-1480},
	shorttitle = {A slippery slope},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10584-005-4135-0},
	doi = {10.1007/s10584-005-4135-0},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Climatic Change},
	author = {Hansen, James E.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {269--279}
}

@article{hansen_climate_1981,
	title = {Climate {Impact} of {Increasing} {Atmospheric} {Carbon} {Dioxide}},
	volume = {213},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.213.4511.957},
	doi = {10.1126/science.213.4511.957},
	abstract = {The global temperature rose by 0.20C between the middle 1960's and 1980, yielding a warming of 0.4°C in the past century. This temperature increase is consistent with the calculated greenhouse effect due to measured increases of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Variations of volcanic aerosols and possibly solar luminosity appear to be primary causes of observed fluctuations about the mean trend of increasing temperature. It is shown that the anthropogenic carbon dioxide warming should emerge from the noise level of natural climate variability by the end of the century, and there is a high probability of warming in the 1980's. Potential effects on climate in the 21st century include the creation of drought-prone regions in North America and central Asia as part of a shifting of climatic zones, erosion of the West Antarctic ice sheet with a consequent worldwide rise in sea level, and opening of the fabled Northwest Passage.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4511},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Hansen, J. and Johnson, D. and Lacis, A. and Lebedeff, S. and Lee, P. and Rind, D. and Russell, G.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1981},
	pages = {957--966}
}

@article{groeskamp_mixing_2017,
	title = {Mixing {Inferred} from an {Ocean} {Climatology} and {Surface} {Fluxes}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0125.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0125.1},
	abstract = {This study provides observation-based estimates, determined by inverse methods, of horizontal and isopycnal eddy diffusion coefficients KH and KI, respectively, the small-scale mixing coefficient D, and the diathermohaline streamfunction C. The inverse solution of C represents the ocean circulation in Absolute Salinity SA and Conservative Temperature Q coordinates. The authors suggest that the observation-based estimate of C will be useful for comparison with equivalent diagnostics from numerical climate models. The estimates of KH and KI represent horizontal eddy mixing in the mixed layer and isopycnal eddy mixing in the ocean interior, respectively. This study finds that the solution for D and KH are comparable to existing estimates. The solution for KI is one of the first observation-based global and full-depth constrained estimates of isopycnal mixing and indicates that KI is an order of magnitude smaller than KH. This suggests that there is a large vertical variation in the eddy mixing coefficient, which is generally not included in ocean models. With ocean models being very sensitive to the choice of isopycnal mixing, this result suggests that further investigation of the spatial structure of isopycnal eddy mixing from observations is required.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Groeskamp, Sjoerd and Sloyan, Bernadette M. and Zika, Jan D. and McDougall, Trevor J.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {667--687}
}

@article{gregg_mixing_2018,
	title = {Mixing {Efficiency} in the {Ocean}},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1941-1405, 1941-0611},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-marine-121916-063643},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-marine-121916-063643},
	abstract = {Mixing efficiency is the ratio of the net change in potential energy to the energy expended in producing the mixing. Parameterizations of efficiency and of related mixing coefficients are needed to estimate diapycnal diffusivity from measurements of the turbulent dissipation rate. Comparing diffusivities from microstructure profiling with those inferred from the thickening rate of four simultaneous tracer releases has verified, within observational accuracy, 0.2 as the mixing coefficient over a 30-fold range of diapycnal diffusivities. Although some mixing coefficients can be estimated from pycnocline measurements, at present mixing efficiency must be obtained from channel flows, laboratory experiments, and numerical simulations. Reviewing the different approaches demonstrates that estimates and parameterizations for mixing efficiency and coefficients are not converging beyond the at-sea comparisons with tracer releases, leading to recommendations for a community approach to address this important issue.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Annual Review of Marine Science},
	author = {Gregg, M.C. and D'Asaro, E.A. and Riley, J.J. and Kunze, E.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {443--473}
}

@article{gray_method_2015,
	title = {A method for multiscale optimal analysis with application to {Argo} data: {MULTISCALE} {OPTIMAL} {ANALYSIS}},
	volume = {120},
	issn = {21699275},
	shorttitle = {A method for multiscale optimal analysis with application to {Argo} data},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2014JC010208},
	doi = {10.1002/2014JC010208},
	abstract = {This study presents an optimal analysis method for estimating the large- and small-scale components of a field from observations. This technique relies on an iterative generalized least squares procedure to determine the statistics of the small-scale fluctuations directly from the data and is thus especially valuable when such information is not known a priori. The use of spherical radial basis functions in fitting the large-scale signal is suggested, particularly when the domain is sufficiently large. Two test cases illustrate several of the properties of this procedure, demonstrate its utility, and provide practical guidelines for its use. This method is then applied to observations collected by the Argo array of profiling floats to produce global gridded absolute geostrophic velocity estimates.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Gray, Alison R. and Riser, Stephen C.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {4340--4356}
}

@article{gray_solar_2010,
	title = {{SOLAR} {INFLUENCES} {ON} {CLIMATE}},
	volume = {48},
	issn = {8755-1209},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2009RG000282},
	doi = {10.1029/2009RG000282},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Gray, L. J. and Beer, J. and Geller, M. and Haigh, J. D. and Lockwood, M. and Matthes, K. and Cubasch, U. and Fleitmann, D. and Harrison, G. and Hood, L. and Luterbacher, J. and Meehl, G. A. and Shindell, D. and van Geel, B. and White, W.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2010}
}

@article{golledge_antarctic_2017,
	title = {Antarctic climate and ice-sheet configuration during the early {Pliocene} interglacial at 4.23 {Ma}},
	volume = {13},
	issn = {1814-9332},
	url = {https://www.clim-past.net/13/959/2017/},
	doi = {10.5194/cp-13-959-2017},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Climate of the Past},
	author = {Golledge, Nicholas R. and Thomas, Zoë A. and Levy, Richard H. and Gasson, Edward G. W. and Naish, Timothy R. and McKay, Robert M. and Kowalewski, Douglas E. and Fogwill, Christopher J.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {959--975}
}

@article{gleick_water_2014,
	title = {Water, {Drought}, {Climate} {Change}, and {Conflict} in {Syria}},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {1948-8327, 1948-8335},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/WCAS-D-13-00059.1},
	doi = {10.1175/WCAS-D-13-00059.1},
	abstract = {The devastating civil war that began in Syria in March 2011 is the result of complex interrelated factors. The focus of the conflict is regime change, but the triggers include a broad set of religious and sociopolitical factors, the erosion of the economic health of the country, a wave of political reform sweeping over the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and Levant region, and challenges associated with climate variability and change and the availability and use of freshwater. As described here, water and climatic conditions have played a direct role in the deterioration of Syria’s economic conditions. There is a long history of conflicts over water in these regions because of the natural water scarcity, the early development of irrigated agriculture, and complex religious and ethnic diversity. In recent years, there has been an increase in incidences of water-related violence around the world at the subnational level attributable to the role that water plays in development disputes and economic activities. Because conflicts are rarely, if ever, attributable to single causes, conflict analysis and concomitant efforts at reducing the risks of conflict must consider a multitude of complex relationships and contributing factors. This paper assesses the complicated connections between water and conflict in Syria, looks more broadly at future climate-related risks for water systems, and offers some water management strategies for reducing those risks.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Weather, Climate, and Society},
	author = {Gleick, Peter H.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {331--340}
}

@article{lawton_sea-ice_2003,
	title = {Sea-ice switches and abrupt climate change},
	volume = {361},
	issn = {1471-2962},
	url = {http://www.royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2003.1244},
	doi = {10.1098/rsta.2003.1244},
	language = {en},
	number = {1810},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences},
	author = {Gildor, Hezi and Tziperman, Eli},
	editor = {Lawton, J. H. and Marotzke, J. and Marsh, R. and McCave, I. N.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2003},
	pages = {1935--1944}
}

@article{gildor_sea_2002,
	title = {Sea ice switch mechanism and glacial-interglacial {CO} $_{\textrm{2}}$ variations: {GLACIAL} {CO} $_{\textrm{2}}$ {AND} {THE} {SEA} {ICE} {SWITCH}},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {08866236},
	shorttitle = {Sea ice switch mechanism and glacial-interglacial {CO} $_{\textrm{2}}$ variations},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2001GB001446},
	doi = {10.1029/2001GB001446},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Global Biogeochemical Cycles},
	author = {Gildor, Hezi and Tziperman, Eli and Toggweiler, J. R.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {6--1--6--14}
}

@book{gettelman_demystifying_2016,
	address = {Berlin, Heidelberg},
	series = {Earth {Systems} {Data} and {Models}},
	title = {Demystifying {Climate} {Models}},
	volume = {2},
	isbn = {978-3-662-48957-4 978-3-662-48959-8},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-48959-8},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg},
	author = {Gettelman, Andrew and Rood, Richard B.},
	year = {2016},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-662-48959-8}
}

@article{gerdes_internal_2002,
	title = {On {Internal} {Hydraulics} with {Entrainment}},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282002%29032%3C1106%3AOIHWE%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032<1106:OIHWE>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The hydraulics of a single layer flow with entrainment is examined with a reduced-gravity model. Expressions are derived for the local change of Froude number and layer thickness as a function of the entrainment velocity. It is shown that entrainment, like friction, acts to force the flow toward criticality, although the layer thickness can increase if the Froude number is smaller than 1/2. For certain Froude numbers the effects of friction and entrainment on the layer thickness and the hydraulic state of the flow are found to be of comparable magnitude.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Gerdes, Frank and Garrett, Chris and Farmer, David},
	month = mar,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {1106--1111}
}

@article{gasson_dynamic_2016,
	title = {Dynamic {Antarctic} ice sheet during the early to mid-{Miocene}},
	volume = {113},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1516130113},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1516130113},
	language = {en},
	number = {13},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Gasson, Edward and DeConto, Robert M. and Pollard, David and Levy, Richard H.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {3459--3464}
}

@article{garrett_isopycnal_2001,
	title = {An {Isopycnal} {View} of {Near}-{Boundary} {Mixing} and {Associated} {Flows}},
	volume = {31},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282001%29031%3C0138%3AAIVONB%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2001)031<0138:AIVONB>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The effectiveness of mixing near a sloping boundary is reduced not just by the ratio of the stratification there to that in the interior but by the square of this ratio. This result has previously been derived and interpreted by invoking the upgradient vertical buoyancy flux associated with secondary circulation as this opposes the downgradient vertical diffusive flux. Here it is shown that the result may be derived very simply by considering the diffusive flux across an isopycnal, rather than a horizontal, surface. The reduction in the buoyancy flux comes from the increased isopycnal spacing and the reduced distance to the boundary. Derivation of the secondary circulation in the isopycnal/diapycnal framework is more subtle, however, as it involves allowing for the curvilinear nature of the coordinates.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Garrett, Chris},
	month = jan,
	year = {2001},
	pages = {138--142}
}

@article{garrett_space-time_1975,
	title = {Space-time scales of internal waves: {A} progress report},
	volume = {80},
	issn = {01480227},
	shorttitle = {Space-time scales of internal waves},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC080i003p00291},
	doi = {10.1029/JC080i003p00291},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Garrett, Christopher and Munk, Walter},
	month = jan,
	year = {1975},
	pages = {291--297}
}

@article{garabato_vigorous_2017,
	title = {Vigorous lateral export of the meltwater outflow from beneath an {Antarctic} ice shelf},
	volume = {542},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature20825},
	doi = {10.1038/nature20825},
	language = {en},
	number = {7640},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Garabato, Alberto C. Naveira and Forryan, Alexander and Dutrieux, Pierre and Brannigan, Liam and Biddle, Louise C. and Heywood, Karen J. and Jenkins, Adrian and Firing, Yvonne L. and Kimura, Satoshi},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {219--222}
}

@article{ganopolski_rapid_2001,
	title = {Rapid changes of glacial climate simulated in a coupled climate model},
	volume = {409},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/35051500},
	doi = {10.1038/35051500},
	language = {en},
	number = {6817},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Ganopolski, Andrey and Rahmstorf, Stefan},
	month = jan,
	year = {2001},
	pages = {153--158}
}

@article{galbraith_lower_2017,
	title = {A lower limit to atmospheric {CO2} concentrations over the past 800,000 years},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2914},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2914},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Galbraith, E. D. and Eggleston, S.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {295--298}
}

@article{frajka-williams_compensation_2016,
	title = {Compensation between meridional flow components of the {Atlantic} {MOC} at 26° {N}},
	volume = {12},
	issn = {1812-0792},
	url = {https://www.ocean-sci.net/12/481/2016/},
	doi = {10.5194/os-12-481-2016},
	abstract = {From ten years of observations of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC) at 26◦ N (2004–2014), we revisit the question of flow compensation between components of the circulation. Contrasting with early results from the observations, transport variations of the Florida Current (FC) and upper mid-ocean (UMO) transports (top 1000 m east of the Bahamas) are now found to compensate on sub-annual timescales. The observed compensation between the FC and UMO transports is associated with horizontal circulation and means that this part of the correlated variability does not project onto the MOC. A deep baroclinic response to wind-forcing (Ekman transport) is also found in the lower North Atlantic Deep Water (LNADW; 3000–5000 m) transport. In contrast, co-variability between Ekman and the LNADW transports does contribute to overturning. On longer timescales, the southward UMO transport has continued to strengthen, resulting in a continued decline of the MOC. Most of this interannual variability of the MOC can be traced to changes in isopycnal displacements on the western boundary, within the top 1000 m and below 2000 m. Substantial trends are observed in isopycnal displacements in the deep ocean, underscoring the importance of deep boundary measurements to capture the variability of the Atlantic MOC.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Ocean Science},
	author = {Frajka-Williams, E. and Meinen, C. S. and Johns, W. E. and Smeed, D. A. and Duchez, A. and Lawrence, A. J. and Cuthbertson, D. A. and McCarthy, G. D. and Bryden, H. L. and Baringer, M. O. and Moat, B. I. and Rayner, D.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {481--493}
}

@article{fletcher_climate_2017,
	title = {Climate science: {Ocean} circulation drove increase in {CO2} uptake},
	volume = {542},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	shorttitle = {Climate science},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/542169a},
	doi = {10.1038/542169a},
	language = {en},
	number = {7640},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Fletcher, Sara E. Mikaloff},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {169--170}
}

@article{livneh_sound_nodate,
	title = {Sound processing takes motor control},
	language = {en},
	author = {Livneh, Uri and Zador, Anthony},
	pages = {2}
}

@article{felikson_inland_2017,
	title = {Inland thinning on the {Greenland} ice sheet controlled by outlet glacier geometry},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/ngeo2934},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2934},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Felikson, Denis and Bartholomaus, Timothy C. and Catania, Ginny A. and Korsgaard, Niels J. and Kjær, Kurt H. and Morlighem, Mathieu and Noël, Brice and van den Broeke, Michiel and Stearns, Leigh A. and Shroyer, Emily L. and Sutherland, David A. and Nash, Jonathan D.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {366--369}
}

@article{feldmann_collapse_2015,
	title = {Collapse of the {West} {Antarctic} {Ice} {Sheet} after local destabilization of the {Amundsen} {Basin}},
	volume = {112},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1512482112},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1512482112},
	language = {en},
	number = {46},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Feldmann, Johannes and Levermann, Anders},
	month = nov,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {14191--14196}
}

@article{feldman_observational_2015,
	title = {Observational determination of surface radiative forcing by {CO2} from 2000 to 2010},
	volume = {519},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature14240},
	doi = {10.1038/nature14240},
	language = {en},
	number = {7543},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Feldman, D. R. and Collins, W. D. and Gero, P. J. and Torn, M. S. and Mlawer, E. J. and Shippert, T. R.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {339--343}
}

@article{farneti_role_2010,
	title = {The {Role} of {Mesoscale} {Eddies} in the {Rectification} of the {Southern} {Ocean} {Response} to {Climate} {Change}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JPO4353.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JPO4353.1},
	abstract = {Simulations from a fine-resolution global coupled model, the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Climate Model, version 2.4 (CM2.4), are presented, and the results are compared with a coarse version of the same coupled model, CM2.1, under idealized climate change scenarios. A particular focus is given to the dynamical response of the Southern Ocean and the role played by the eddies—parameterized or permitted—in setting the residual circulation and meridional density structure. Compared to the case in which eddies are parameterized and consistent with recent observational and idealized modeling studies, the eddy-permitting integrations of CM2.4 show that eddy activity is greatly energized with increasing mechanical and buoyancy forcings, buffering the ocean to atmospheric changes, and the magnitude of the residual oceanic circulation response is thus greatly reduced. Although compensation is far from being perfect, changes in poleward eddy fluxes partially compensate for the enhanced equatorward Ekman transport, leading to weak modifications in local isopycnal slopes, transport by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, and overturning circulation. Since the presence of active ocean eddy dynamics buffers the oceanic response to atmospheric changes, the associated atmospheric response to those reduced ocean changes is also weakened. Further, it is hypothesized that present numerical approaches for the parameterization of eddy-induced transports could be too restrictive and prevent coarse-resolution models from faithfully representing the eddy response to variability and change in the forcing fields.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Farneti, Riccardo and Delworth, Thomas L. and Rosati, Anthony J. and Griffies, Stephen M. and Zeng, Fanrong},
	month = jul,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {1539--1557}
}

@article{emanuel_assessing_2017,
	title = {Assessing the present and future probability of {Hurricane} {Harvey}’s rainfall},
	volume = {114},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1716222114},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1716222114},
	language = {en},
	number = {48},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Emanuel, Kerry},
	month = nov,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {12681--12684}
}

@article{elsworth_enhanced_2017,
	title = {Enhanced weathering and {CO2} drawdown caused by latest {Eocene} strengthening of the {Atlantic} meridional overturning circulation},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2888},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2888},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Elsworth, Geneviève and Galbraith, Eric and Halverson, Galen and Yang, Simon},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {213--216}
}

@article{egbert_signicant_2000,
	title = {Signi®cant dissipation of tidal energy in the deep ocean inferred from satellite altimeter data},
	volume = {405},
	language = {en},
	author = {Egbert, G D and Ray, R D},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {4}
}

@article{edwards_dynamics_1998,
	title = {Dynamics of {Nonlinear} {Cross}-{Equatorial} {Flow}. {Part} {I}: {Potential} {Vorticity} {Transformation}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	shorttitle = {Dynamics of {Nonlinear} {Cross}-{Equatorial} {Flow}. {Part} {I}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281998%29028%3C2382%3ADONCEF%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1998)028<2382:DONCEF>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The transformation of potential vorticity within nonlinear deep western boundary currents in an idealized tropical ocean is studied using a shallow-water model. In a rectangular domain forced by a localized, Northern Hemisphere mass source and a distributed sink that require a net, cross-equatorial mass flux, a series of numerical experiments investigate how potential vorticity changes sign as fluid crosses the equator. Dissipation is included as momentum diffusion, and the Reynolds number, defined as the ratio of the mass source per unit depth to the viscosity, determines the nature of the flow. For Re less than a critical value (approximately 30) the flow is laminar and well described by linear theory. For Reynolds numbers just above this value, the system becomes time-dependent with eddies of one sign developing adjacent to the boundary and propagating steadily across the equator. For very large Re, an extensive and complicated network of both positive and negative anomalies emerges. Analysis of vorticity fluxes, decomposed into mean, eddy, and frictional elements, reveals the growth with Reynolds number of a turbulent boundary layer that exchanges vorticity between the inertial portion of the boundary current and a frictional sublayer where it is expelled from the basin. Thus, the eddy field is established as an essential mechanism for potential vorticity transformation in nonlinear cross-equatorial flow.},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Edwards, Christopher A. and Pedlosky, Joseph},
	month = dec,
	year = {1998},
	pages = {2382--2406}
}

@article{odwyer_climatological_1997,
	title = {The {Climatological} {Distribution} of {Potential} {Vorticity} over the {Abyssal} {Ocean}},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281997%29027%3C2488%3ATCDOPV%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1997)027<2488:TCDOPV>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Climatological maps of the large-scale potential vorticity field Q along isopycnals are diagnosed for the abyssal waters over the global ocean. The inferred patterns of Q vary with density, the basin, and hemisphere. At middepths, the distribution of Q is controlled by the background planetary vorticity gradient. On deeper isopycnals, there are regions where Q contours deviate from latitude circles and even regions of nearly uniform Q. These different regimes appear to be robust features over the interior of ocean basins, as the standard error is found to be relatively small there. The nearly uniform Q occurs in the deep waters of the North Pacific and, possibly, in the bottom waters of the western North Atlantic and North Pacific. The nearly uniform Q has a low magnitude in each case, as well as a relatively low variability for the deep waters of the North Pacific. This nearly uniform Q signal appears to be formed when a single water mass enters the basin from a low latitude source.},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {O’Dwyer, Jane and Williams, Richard G.},
	month = nov,
	year = {1997},
	pages = {2488--2506}
}

@article{dutton_ice_2012,
	title = {Ice {Volume} and {Sea} {Level} {During} the {Last} {Interglacial}},
	volume = {337},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.1205749},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1205749},
	language = {en},
	number = {6091},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Dutton, A. and Lambeck, K.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {216--219}
}

@article{durrieu_de_madron_circulation_1994,
	title = {Circulation, transport and bottom boundary layers of the deep currents in the {Brazil} {Basin}},
	volume = {52},
	issn = {00222402, 15439542},
	url = {http://www.ingentaselect.com/rpsv/cgi-bin/cgi?ini=xref&body=linker&reqdoi=10.1357/0022240943076975},
	doi = {10.1357/0022240943076975},
	abstract = {Zonal and meridional hydrographic sectionsobtained for the South Atlantic Ventilation Experiment are usedto study the circulation patterns and estimatethe transportsof North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) andAntarctic Bottom Water (AABW) in the Brazil Basin. The NADW Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) appearsto be a relatively large ( = 800km wide by 2 km thick), double core current, separatedby counterflowingrecirculation. It appearsto split, branchingseawardat the CapeSabRoquenear 5s and againat the Columbia-TrinidadSeamountChain at 21s.As a result of this latter bifurcation, the NADW DWBC flow in the southernbasindecreasessignificantly. In the southernpart of the basin,the AABW DWBC isa relatively broad(= 1000km), thin (= 700 m) flow which hugsthe bottom of the continental rise. The densestwaters that composethe coreof the AABW DWBC eventually separatefrom the DWBC in the northern part of basinasthey aretopographicallydiverted to the east.The southwardreturn flow at the easternedgeof the AABW DWBC and a northward flow in the easternpart of the basin suggesat meanderingmeridionalrecirculation of AABW in the interior of the basin.In the north central part of the deepbasinthere is a cyclonicabyssagl yrewith a largecomponentof WeddellSeaDeepWater (WSDW). The along-isobathmovementof the DWBCs over the slopingbottom drives cross-slope advectionof the bottom boundary iayer. The up-slopeadvectionof denserwater within the NADW DWBC is believedto setup a slipperybottom layer, while the bottom layer associated with the down-slopeadvectionof lighter water within the AABW DWBC is estimatedto be only partially slippery. Geostrophictransportsof heat,saltandmassareusedto estimatemixingin the AABW flow in the Brazil Basin. The rates at which heat and salt mix are characteristic of diapycnal turbulent mixing.The mixing processeasppearto be moreactive alongthe westernboundary.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	author = {Durrieu De Madron, X. and Weatherly, G.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1994},
	pages = {583--638}
}
@incollection{drijfhout_conceptual_2013,
	title = {Conceptual {Models} of the {Wind}-{Driven} and {Thermohaline} {Circulation}},
	volume = {103},
	isbn = {978-0-12-391851-2},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123918512000118},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	booktitle = {International {Geophysics}},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	author = {Drijfhout, Sybren S. and Marshall, David P. and Dijkstra, Henk A.},
	year = {2013},
	doi = {10.1016/B978-0-12-391851-2.00011-8},
	pages = {257--282}
}

@incollection{soomere_tracmasslagrangian_2013,
	address = {Heidelberg},
	title = {{TRACMASS}—{A} {Lagrangian} {Trajectory} {Model}},
	isbn = {978-3-319-00439-6 978-3-319-00440-2},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-00440-2_7},
	abstract = {A detailed description of the Lagrangian trajectory model TRACMASS is presented. The theory behind the original scheme for steady state velocities is derived for rectangular and curvilinear grids with different vertical coordinates for the oceanic and atmospheric circulation models. Two different ways to integrate the trajectories in time in TRACMASS are presented. These different time schemes are compared by simulating inertial oscillations, which show that both schemes are sufficiently accurate not to deviate from the analytical solution.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	booktitle = {Preventive {Methods} for {Coastal} {Protection}},
	publisher = {Springer International Publishing},
	author = {Döös, Kristofer and Kjellsson, Joakim and Jönsson, Bror},
	editor = {Soomere, Tarmo and Quak, Ewald},
	year = {2013},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-319-00440-2_7},
	pages = {225--249}
}

@article{dewar_does_2006,
	title = {Does the marine biosphere mix the ocean?},
	volume = {64},
	issn = {00222402, 15439542},
	url = {http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/xref?genre=article&issn=0022-2402&volume=64&issue=4&spage=541},
	doi = {10.1357/002224006778715720},
	abstract = {Ocean mixing is thought to control the climatically important oceanic overturning circulation. Here we argue the marine biosphere, by a mechanism like the bioturbation occurring in marine sediments, mixes the oceans as effectively as the winds and tides. This statement is derived ultimately from an estimated 62.7 TeraWatts of chemical power provided to the marine environment in net primary production. Various approaches argue something like 1\% (.63 TeraWatts) of this power is invested in aphotic ocean mechanical energy, a rate comparable to wind and tidal inputs.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	author = {Dewar, W. K. and Bingham, R. J. and Iverson, R. L. and Nowacek, D. P. and St. Laurent, L. C. and Wiebe, P. H.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2006},
	pages = {541--561}
}

@article{devries_recent_2017,
	title = {Recent increase in oceanic carbon uptake driven by weaker upper-ocean overturning},
	volume = {542},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature21068},
	doi = {10.1038/nature21068},
	language = {en},
	number = {7640},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {DeVries, Tim and Holzer, Mark and Primeau, Francois},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {215--218}
}

@article{depoorter_calving_2013,
	title = {Calving fluxes and basal melt rates of {Antarctic} ice shelves},
	volume = {502},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature12567},
	doi = {10.1038/nature12567},
	language = {en},
	number = {7469},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Depoorter, M. A. and Bamber, J. L. and Griggs, J. A. and Lenaerts, J. T. M. and Ligtenberg, S. R. M. and van den Broeke, M. R. and Moholdt, G.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {89--92}
}

@book{dell_boundary_2013,
	address = {Woods Hole, MA},
	title = {Boundary layer dynamics and deep ocean mixing in {Mid}-{Atlantic} {Ridge} canyons},
	url = {https://hdl.handle.net/1912/5740},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	publisher = {Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution},
	author = {Dell, Rebecca Walsh},
	year = {2013},
	doi = {10.1575/1912/5740}
}

@article{decloedt_spatially_2012,
	title = {Spatially heterogeneous diapycnal mixing in the abyssal ocean: {A} comparison of two parameterizations to observations: {ABYSSAL} {MIXING} {PARAMETERIZATIONS}},
	volume = {117},
	issn = {01480227},
	shorttitle = {Spatially heterogeneous diapycnal mixing in the abyssal ocean},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2012JC008304},
	doi = {10.1029/2012JC008304},
	language = {en},
	number = {C11},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Decloedt, Thomas and Luther, Douglas S.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {n/a--n/a}
}

@article{decloedt_simple_2010,
	title = {On a {Simple} {Empirical} {Parameterization} of {Topography}-{Catalyzed} {Diapycnal} {Mixing} in the {Abyssal} {Ocean}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2009JPO4275.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JPO4275.1},
	abstract = {The global spatial distribution of the turbulent diapycnal diffusivity in the abyssal ocean is reexamined in light of the growing body of microstructure data revealing bottom-intensified turbulent mixing in regions of rough topography. A direct and nontrivial implication of the observed intensification is that the diapycnal diffusivity Kr, is depth dependent and patchily distributed horizontally across the world’s oceans. Theoretical and observational studies show that bottom-intensified mixing is dependent upon a variety of energy sources and processes whose contributions to mixing are sufficiently complex that their physical parameterization is premature; only rudimentary parameterizations of tidally induced mixing have been attempted, although the tides likely provide no more than half of the mechanical energy available for diapycnal mixing in the abyssal ocean. Here, an empirical (and still rudimentary) parameterization of the spatially variable mean diffusivity Kr based on a large collection of microstructure data from several oceanic regions, is provided. The parameterization, called the roughness diffusivity model (RDM), depends only on seafloor roughness and height above bottom and has the advantage of tacitly including a broad range of mixing processes catalyzed by the roughness or acuteness of the bottom topography. The study focuses in particular on the vertical structure of Kr and shows that exponential decay, prominent in current diapycnal mixing parameterizations, does not provide an adequate representation of the mean vertical profile. Instead, an inverse square law decay with a scale height and maximum near-boundary value depending on topographic roughness is shown to provide a more realistic vertical structure. Resulting basin-averaged diffusivities based on the RDM, which increase from ;3 3 1025 m2 s21 at 1-km depth to ;1.5 3 1024 m2 s21 at 4 km, are roughly consistent with spatial averages derived from hydrographic data inversions, supporting the contention that strong, localized mixing plays a major role in maintaining the observed abyssal stratification. The power required to sustain the stratification in the abyssal ocean (defined as 408S–488N, 1–4-km depth) is shown to be sensitive to the spatial distribution of the mixing. The power consumption in this domain, given the parameterized bottom-intensified and horizontally heterogeneous diffusivity structure in the RDM, is estimated as approximately 0.37 TW (TW 5 1012 W), considerably less than the canonical value of ;2 TW estimated under the assumption of a uniform diffusivity of ;1024 m2 s21 in the abyssal ocean.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Decloedt, Thomas and Luther, Douglas S.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {487--508}
}

@article{davis_tokar_2015,
	title = {The {Tokar} {Gap} {Jet}: {Regional} {Circulation}, {Diurnal} {Variability}, and {Moisture} {Transport} {Based} on {Numerical} {Simulations}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	shorttitle = {The {Tokar} {Gap} {Jet}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00635.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00635.1},
	abstract = {The structure, variability, and regional connectivity of the Tokar Gap jet (TGJ) are described using WRF Model analyses and supporting atmospheric datasets from the East African–Red Sea–Arabian Peninsula (EARSAP) region during summer 2008. Sources of the TGJ’s unique quasi-diurnal nature and association with atypically high atmospheric moisture transport are traced back to larger-scale atmospheric dynamics influencing its forcing. These include seasonal shifts in the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), variability of the monsoon and North African wind regimes, and ties to other orographic flow patterns. Strong modulation of the TGJ by regional processes such as the desert heating cycle, wind convergence at the ITCZ surface front, and the local land–sea breeze cycle are described. Two case studies present the interplay of these influences in detail. The first of these was an ‘‘extreme’’ gap wind event on 12 July, in which horizontal velocities in the Tokar Gap exceeded 26 m s21 and the flow from the jet extended the full width of the Red Sea basin. This event coincided with development of a large mesoscale convective complex (MCC) and precipitation at the entrance of the Tokar Gap as well as smaller gaps downstream along the Arabian Peninsula. More typical behavior of the TGJ during the 2008 summer is discussed using a second case study on 19 July. Downwind impact of the TGJ is evaluated using Lagrangian model trajectories and analysis of the lateral moisture fluxes (LMFs) during jet events. These results suggest means by which TGJ contributes to large LMFs and has potential bearing upon Sahelian rainfall and MCC development.},
	language = {en},
	number = {15},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Davis, Shannon R. and Pratt, Lawrence J. and Jiang, Houshuo},
	month = aug,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {5885--5907}
}

@article{cox_sensitivity_2013,
	title = {Sensitivity of tropical carbon to climate change constrained by carbon dioxide variability},
	volume = {494},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature11882},
	doi = {10.1038/nature11882},
	language = {en},
	number = {7437},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Cox, Peter M. and Pearson, David and Booth, Ben B. and Friedlingstein, Pierre and Huntingford, Chris and Jones, Chris D. and Luke, Catherine M.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {341--344}
}

@article{hole_carbon_nodate,
	title = {Carbon {Dioxide} and {Climate}: {A} {Scientific} {Assessment}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Hole, Woods},
	pages = {20}
}

@article{chapman_deceleration_2002,
	title = {Deceleration of a {Finite}-{Width}, {Stratified} {Current} over a {Sloping} {Bottom}: {Frictional} {Spindown} or {Buoyancy} {Shutdown}?*},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	shorttitle = {Deceleration of a {Finite}-{Width}, {Stratified} {Current} over a {Sloping} {Bottom}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282002%29032%3C0336%3ADOAFWS%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032<0336:DOAFWS>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The deceleration of an unforced, two-dimensional, finite-width current over a sloping bottom in a stratified fluid is studied to quantify the relative importance of frictional spindown and buoyancy shutdown when both act simultaneously. Frictional spindown decelerates the current through Ekman suction and pumping at the current edges, which transmit stresses into the interior fluid. Buoyancy shutdown is the process by which lateral advection of density in the bottom boundary layer generates thermal wind shears that reduce the bottom stress, thereby halting deceleration.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Chapman, David C.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {336--352}
}

@article{chapman_adjustment_1997,
	title = {Adjustment of {Stratified} {Flow} over a {Sloping} {Bottom}*},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281997%29027%3C0340%3AAOSFOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1997)027<0340:AOSFOA>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The evolution of a steady stratified along-isobath current flowing cyclonically (shallower water on the right looking downstream) over a sloping frictional bottom is examined using an idealized model. The flow is assumed to consist of an inviscid vertically uniform geostrophic interior above a bottom boundary layer in which density is vertically well mixed. Within the bottom boundary layer, vertical shear in the horizontal velocities is assumed to result only from horizontal density gradients. Density advection is included in the model, but momentum advection is not. The downstream evolution of the current is described by two coupled nonlinear partial differential equations for surface pressure and boundary layer thickness, each of which is first order in the along-isobath coordinate and can be easily integrated numerically.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Chapman, David C. and Lentz, Steven J.},
	month = feb,
	year = {1997},
	pages = {340--356}
}

@article{chakraborty_heat_nodate,
	title = {Heat and salt budget in {MITgcm}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Chakraborty, Abhisek and Campin, Jean-Michel},
	pages = {7}
}

@article{chapman_isopycnal_2017,
	title = {Isopycnal {Mixing} {Suppression} by the {Antarctic} {Circumpolar} {Current} and the {Southern} {Ocean} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0263.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0263.1},
	abstract = {The meridional overturning circulation (MOC) in the Southern Ocean is investigated using hydrographic observations combined with satellite measurements of sea surface height. A three-dimensional (spatial and vertical) estimate of the isopycnal eddy diffusivity in the Southern Ocean is obtained using the theory of Ferrari and Nikurashin that includes the influence of suppression of the diffusivity by the strong, time-mean flows. It is found that the eddy diffusivity is enhanced at depth, reaching a maximum at the critical layer near 1000 m. The estimate of diffusivity is used with a simple diffusive parameterization to estimate the meridional eddy volume flux. This estimate of eddy volume flux is combined with an estimate of the Ekman transport to reconstruct the time-mean overturning circulation. By comparing the reconstruction with, and without, suppression of the eddy diffusivity by the mean flow, the influence of the suppression on the overturning is illuminated. It is shown that the suppression of the eddy diffusivity results in a large reduction of interior eddy transports and a more realistic eddy-induced overturning circulation. Finally, a simple conceptual model is used to show that the MOC is influenced not only by the existence of enhanced diffusivity at depth but also by the details of the vertical structure of the eddy diffusivity, such as the depth of the critical layer.},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Chapman, Christopher and Sallée, Jean-Baptiste},
	month = aug,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {2023--2045}
}

@article{cerovecki_comparison_2011,
	title = {A {Comparison} of {Southern} {Ocean} {Air}–{Sea} {Buoyancy} {Flux} from an {Ocean} {State} {Estimate} with {Five} {Other} {Products}},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2011JCLI3858.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2011JCLI3858.1},
	abstract = {The authors have intercompared the following six surface buoyancy flux estimates, averaged over the years 2005–07: two reanalyses [the recent ECMWF reanalysis (ERA-Interim; hereafter ERA), and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)–NCAR reanalysis 1 (hereafter NCEP1)], two recent flux products developed as an improvement of NCEP1 [the flux product by Large and Yeager and the Southern Ocean State Estimate (SOSE)], and two ad hoc air–sea flux estimates that are obtained by combining the NCEP1 or ERA net radiative fluxes with turbulent flux estimates using the Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Response Experiment (COARE) 3.0 bulk formulas with NCEP1 or ERA input variables.},
	language = {en},
	number = {24},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Cerovečki, Ivana and Talley, Lynne D. and Mazloff, Matthew R.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {6283--6306}
}

@article{callies_what_nodate,
	title = {What keeps the stratified mixing layer stratified?},
	language = {en},
	author = {Callies, Jorn},
	pages = {21}
}

@article{callies_dynamics_2018,
	title = {Dynamics of an {Abyssal} {Circulation} {Driven} by {Bottom}-{Intensified} {Mixing} on {Slopes}},
	volume = {48},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-17-0125.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-17-0125.1},
	abstract = {The large-scale circulation of the abyssal ocean is enabled by small-scale diapycnal mixing, which observations suggest is strongly enhanced toward the ocean bottom, where the breaking of internal tides and lee waves is most vigorous. As discussed recently, bottom-intensified mixing induces a pattern of near-bottom upand downwelling that is quite different from the traditionally assumed widespread upwelling. Here the consequences of bottom-intensified mixing for the horizontal circulation of the abyssal ocean are explored by considering planetary geostrophic dynamics in an idealized ‘‘bathtub geometry.’’ Up- and downwelling layers develop on bottom slopes as expected, and these layers are well described by boundary layer theory. The basin-scale circulation is driven by flows in and out of these boundary layers at the base of the sloping topography, which creates primarily zonal currents in the interior and a net meridional exchange along western boundaries. The rate of the net overturning is controlled by the up- and downslope transports in boundary layers on slopes and can be predicted with boundary layer theory.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Callies, Jörn and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	month = jun,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {1257--1282}
}

@article{callies_interpreting_2013,
	title = {Interpreting {Energy} and {Tracer} {Spectra} of {Upper}-{Ocean} {Turbulence} in the {Submesoscale} {Range} (1–200 km)},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-13-063.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-13-063.1},
	abstract = {Submesoscale (1–200 km) wavenumber spectra of kinetic and potential energy and tracer variance are obtained from in situ observations in the Gulf Stream region and in the eastern subtropical North Pacific. In the Gulf Stream region, steep kinetic energy spectra at scales between 200 and 20 km are consistent with predictions of interior quasigeostrophic–turbulence theory, both in the mixed layer and in the thermocline. At scales below 20 km, the spectra flatten out, consistent with a growing contribution of internal-wave energy at small scales. In the subtropical North Pacific, the energy spectra are flatter and inconsistent with predictions of interior quasigeostrophic–turbulence theory. The observed spectra and their dependence on depth are also inconsistent with predictions of surface quasigeostrophic–turbulence theory for the observed ocean stratification. It appears that unbalanced motions, most likely internal tides at large scales and the internal-wave continuum at small scales, dominate the energy spectrum throughout the submesoscale range. Spectra of temperature variance along density surfaces, which are not affected by internal tides, are also inconsistent with predictions of geostrophic-turbulence theories. Reasons for this inconsistency could be the injection of energy in the submesoscale range by small-scale baroclinic instabilities or modifications of the spectra by coupling between surface and interior dynamics or by ageostrophic frontal effects.},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Callies, Jörn and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	month = nov,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {2456--2474}
}

@article{bush_resilience_2017,
	title = {The resilience of {Amazonian} forests: {Climate} science},
	volume = {541},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	shorttitle = {The resilience of {Amazonian} forests},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/541167a},
	doi = {10.1038/541167a},
	language = {en},
	number = {7636},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Bush, Mark B.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {167--168}
}

@article{burke_glacial_2015,
	title = {The glacial mid-depth radiocarbon bulge and its implications for the overturning circulation: {Glacial} {Radiocarbon} and {Circulation}},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {08838305},
	shorttitle = {The glacial mid-depth radiocarbon bulge and its implications for the overturning circulation},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2015PA002778},
	doi = {10.1002/2015PA002778},
	abstract = {Published reconstructions of radiocarbon in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean indicate that there is a mid-depth maximum in radiocarbon age during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). This is in contrast to the modern ocean where intense mixing between water masses results in a relatively homogenous radiocarbon profile. Ferrari et al. (2014) suggested that the extended Antarctic sea ice cover during the LGM necessitated a shallower boundary between the upper and lower branches of the meridional overturning circulation. This shoaled boundary lay above major topographic features associated with strong diapycnal mixing, isolating dense southern sourced water in the lower branch of the overturning circulation. This isolation would have allowed radiocarbon to decay and thus provides a possible explanation for the mid-depth radiocarbon age bulge. We test this hypothesis using an idealized, 2-D, residual-mean dynamical model of the global overturning circulation. Concentration distributions of a decaying tracer that is advected by the simulated overturning are compared to published radiocarbon data. We find that a 600 km ({\textasciitilde}5° of latitude) increase in sea ice extent shoals the boundary between the upper and lower branches of the overturning circulation at 45°S by 600 m and shoals the depth of North Atlantic Deep Water convection at 50°N by 2500 m. This change in circulation configuration alone decreases the radiocarbon content in the mid-depth South Atlantic at 45°S by 40‰, even without an increase in surface radiocarbon age in the source region of deep waters during the LGM.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Paleoceanography},
	author = {Burke, Andrea and Stewart, Andrew L. and Adkins, Jess F. and Ferrari, Raffaele and Jansen, Malte F. and Thompson, Andrew F.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {1021--1039}
}

@article{burke_global_2015,
	title = {Global non-linear effect of temperature on economic production},
	volume = {527},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature15725},
	doi = {10.1038/nature15725},
	language = {en},
	number = {7577},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Burke, Marshall and Hsiang, Solomon M. and Miguel, Edward},
	month = nov,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {235--239}
}

@article{burke_climate_2015,
	title = {Climate and {Conflict}},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {1941-1383, 1941-1391},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115430},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115430},
	abstract = {We review the emerging literature on climate and conflict. We consider multiple types of human conflict, including both interpersonal conflict, such as assault and murder, and intergroup conflict, including riots and civil war. We discuss key methodological issues in estimating causal relationships and largely focus on natural experiments that exploit variation in climate over time. Using a hierarchical meta-analysis that allows us to both estimate the mean effect and quantify the degree of variability across 55 studies, we find that deviations from moderate temperatures and precipitation patterns systematically increase conflict risk. Contemporaneous temperature has the largest average impact, with each 1s increase in temperature increasing interpersonal conflict by 2.4\% and intergroup conflict by 11.3\%. We conclude by highlighting research priorities, including a better understanding of the mechanisms linking climate to conflict, societies’ ability to adapt to climatic changes, and the likely impacts of future global warming.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Annual Review of Economics},
	author = {Burke, Marshall and Hsiang, Solomon M. and Miguel, Edward},
	month = aug,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {577--617}
}

@article{buckley_observations_2016,
	title = {Observations, inferences, and mechanisms of the {Atlantic} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation}: {A} review: {ATLANTIC} {MOC} {REVIEW}},
	volume = {54},
	issn = {87551209},
	shorttitle = {Observations, inferences, and mechanisms of the {Atlantic} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2015RG000493},
	doi = {10.1002/2015RG000493},
	abstract = {This is a review about the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), its mean structure, temporal variability, controlling mechanisms, and role in the coupled climate system. The AMOC plays a central role in climate through its heat and freshwater transports. Northward ocean heat transport achieved by the AMOC is responsible for the relative warmth of the Northern Hemisphere compared to the Southern Hemisphere and is thought to play a role in setting the mean position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone north of the equator. The AMOC is a key means by which heat anomalies are sequestered into the ocean’s interior and thus modulates the trajectory of climate change. Fluctuations in the AMOC have been linked to low-frequency variability of Atlantic sea surface temperatures with a host of implications for climate variability over surrounding landmasses. On intra-annual timescales, variability in AMOC is large and primarily reflects the response to local wind forcing; meridional coherence of anomalies is limited to that of the wind field. On interannual to decadal timescales, AMOC changes are primarily geostrophic and related to buoyancy anomalies on the western boundary. A pacemaker region for decadal AMOC changes is located in a western “transition zone” along the boundary between the subtropical and subpolar gyres. Decadal AMOC anomalies are communicated meridionally from this region. AMOC observations, as well as the expanded ocean observational network provided by the Argo array and satellite altimetry, are inspiring efforts to develop decadal predictability systems using coupled atmosphere-ocean models initialized by ocean data.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Buckley, Martha W. and Marshall, John},
	month = mar,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {5--63}
}

@article{bryden_slowing_2005,
	title = {Slowing of the {Atlantic} meridional overturning circulation at 25° {N}},
	volume = {438},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature04385},
	doi = {10.1038/nature04385},
	language = {en},
	number = {7068},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Bryden, Harry L. and Longworth, Hannah R. and Cunningham, Stuart A.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {655--657}
}

@article{brovkin_glacial_2012,
	title = {Glacial {CO}\&lt;sub\&gt;2\&lt;/sub\&gt; cycle as a succession of key physical and biogeochemical processes},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1814-9332},
	url = {https://www.clim-past.net/8/251/2012/},
	doi = {10.5194/cp-8-251-2012},
	abstract = {During glacial-interglacial cycles, atmospheric CO2 concentration varied by about 100 ppmv in amplitude. While testing mechanisms that have led to the low glacial CO2 level could be done in equilibrium model experiments, an ultimate goal is to explain CO2 changes in transient simulations through the complete glacial-interglacial cycle. The computationally efficient Earth System model of intermediate complexity CLIMBER-2 is used to simulate global biogeochemistry over the last glacial cycle (126 kyr). The physical core of the model (atmosphere, ocean, land and ice sheets) is driven by orbital changes and reconstructed radiative forcing from greenhouses gases, ice, and aeolian dust. The carbon cycle model is able to reproduce the main features of the CO2 changes: a 50 ppmv CO2 drop during glacial inception, a minimum concentration at the last glacial maximum 80 ppmv lower than the Holocene value, and an abrupt 60 ppmv CO2 rise during the deglaciation. The model deep ocean δ13C also resembles reconstructions from deep-sea cores. The main drivers of atmospheric CO2 evolve in time: changes in sea surface temperatures and in the volume of bottom water of southern origin control atmospheric CO2 during the glacial inception and deglaciation; changes in carbonate chemistry and marine biology are dominant during the first and second parts of the glacial cycle, respectively. These feedback mechanisms could also significantly impact the ultimate climate response to the anthropogenic perturbation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Climate of the Past},
	author = {Brovkin, V. and Ganopolski, A. and Archer, D. and Munhoven, G.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {251--264}
}

@article{brook_antarctic_2018,
	title = {Antarctic and global climate history viewed from ice cores},
	volume = {558},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0172-5},
	doi = {10.1038/s41586-018-0172-5},
	language = {en},
	number = {7709},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Brook, Edward J. and Buizert, Christo},
	month = jun,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {200--208}
}

@article{broecker_climatic_1975,
	title = {Climatic {Change}: {Are} {We} on the {Brink} of a {Pronounced} {Global} {Warming}?},
	volume = {189},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/1740491},
	language = {en},
	number = {4201},
	journal = {Science, New Series},
	author = {Broecker, Wallace S.},
	year = {1975},
	pages = {460--463}
}

@article{brink_buoyancy_2010,
	title = {Buoyancy {Arrest} and {Bottom} {Ekman} {Transport}. {Part} {II}: {Oscillating} {Flow}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	shorttitle = {Buoyancy {Arrest} and {Bottom} {Ekman} {Transport}. {Part} {II}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2009JPO4267.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JPO4267.1},
	abstract = {The effects of a sloping bottom and stratification on a turbulent bottom boundary layer are investigated for cases where the interior flow oscillates monochromatically with frequency v. At higher frequencies, or small slope Burger numbers s 5 aN/f (where a is the bottom slope, N is the interior buoyancy frequency, and f is the Coriolis parameter), the bottom boundary layer is well mixed and the bottom stress is nearly what it would be over a flat bottom. For lower frequencies, or larger slope Burger number, the bottom boundary layer consists of a thick, weakly stratified outer layer and a thinner, more strongly stratified inner layer. Approximate expressions are derived for the different boundary layer thicknesses as functions of s and s 5 v/f. Further, buoyancy arrest causes the amplitude of the fluctuating bottom stress to decrease with decreasing s (the s dependence, although important, is more complicated). For typical oceanic parameters, arrest is unimportant for fluctuation periods shorter than a few days. Substantial positive (toward the right when looking toward deeper water in the Northern Hemisphere) time-mean flows develop within the well-mixed boundary layer, and negative mean flows exist in the weakly stratified outer boundary layer for lower frequencies and larger s. If the interior flow is realistically broad band in frequency, the numerical model predicts stress reduction over all frequencies because of the nonlinearity associated with a quadratic bottom stress. It appears that the present one-dimensional model is reliable only for time scales less than the advective time scale that governs interior stratification.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Brink, K. H. and Lentz, S. J.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {636--655}
}

@article{brink_buoyancy_2010-1,
	title = {Buoyancy {Arrest} and {Bottom} {Ekman} {Transport}. {Part} {I}: {Steady} {Flow}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	shorttitle = {Buoyancy {Arrest} and {Bottom} {Ekman} {Transport}. {Part} {I}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2009JPO4266.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JPO4266.1},
	abstract = {It is well known that along-isobath flow above a sloping bottom gives rise to cross-isobath Ekman transport and therefore sets up horizontal density gradients if the ocean is stratified. These transports in turn eventually bring the along-isobath bottom velocity, hence bottom stress, to rest (‘‘buoyancy arrest’’) simply by means of the thermal wind shear. This problem is revisited here. A modified expression for Ekman transport is rationalized, and general expressions for buoyancy arrest time scales are presented. Theory and numerical calculations are used to define a new formula for boundary layer thickness for the case of downslope Ekman transport, where a thick, weakly stratified arrested boundary layer results. For upslope Ekman transport, where advection leads to enhanced stability, expressions are derived for both the weakly sloping (in the sense of slope Burger number s 5 aN/f, where a is the bottom slope, N is the interior buoyancy frequency, and f is the Coriolis parameter) case where a capped boundary layer evolves and the larger s case where a nearly linearly stratified boundary layer joins smoothly to the interior density profile. Consistent estimates for the buoyancy arrest time scale are found for each case.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Brink, K. H. and Lentz, S. J.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {621--635}
}

@article{bretherton_technique_1976,
	title = {A technique for objective analysis and design of oceanographic experiments applied to {MODE}-73},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {00117471},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0011747176900012},
	doi = {10.1016/0011-7471(76)90001-2},
	abstract = {A technique for the objective analysis of oceanic data has been developed and used on simulated data. The technique is based on a standard statistical result--the Gauss-Markov Theorem--which gives an expression for the least square error linear estimate of some physical variable (velocity, stream function, temperature, etc.) given measurements at a limited number of data points, the statistics of the field being estimated in the form of space-time spectra, and the measurement errors. An expression for the r.m.s, error expected in this estimate is also derived and illustrated in the form of 'error maps'.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts},
	author = {Bretherton, Francis P. and Davis, Russ E. and Fandry, C.B.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1976},
	pages = {559--582}
}

@article{bower_interior_2009,
	title = {Interior pathways of the {North} {Atlantic} meridional overturning circulation},
	volume = {459},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature07979},
	doi = {10.1038/nature07979},
	language = {en},
	number = {7244},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Bower, Amy S. and Lozier, M. Susan and Gary, Stefan F. and Böning, Claus W.},
	month = may,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {243--247}
}

@article{bierman_persistent_2016,
	title = {A persistent and dynamic {East} {Greenland} {Ice} {Sheet} over the past 7.5 million years},
	volume = {540},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature20147},
	doi = {10.1038/nature20147},
	language = {en},
	number = {7632},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Bierman, Paul R. and Shakun, Jeremy D. and Corbett, Lee B. and Zimmerman, Susan R. and Rood, Dylan H.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {256--260}
}

@article{benthuysen_rapid_2015,
	title = {Rapid {Generation} of {Upwelling} at a {Shelf} {Break} {Caused} by {Buoyancy} {Shutdown}},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-14-0104.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-14-0104.1},
	abstract = {Model analyses of an alongshelf flow over a continental shelf and slope reveal upwelling near the shelf break. A stratified, initially uniform, alongshelf flow undergoes a rapid adjustment with notable differences onshore and offshore of the shelf break. Over the shelf, a bottom boundary layer and an offshore bottom Ekman transport develop within an inertial period. Over the slope, the bottom offshore transport is reduced from the shelf’s bottom transport by two processes. First, advection of buoyancy downslope induces vertical mixing, destratifying, and thickening the bottom boundary layer. The downward-tilting isopycnals reduce the geostrophic speed near the bottom. The reduced bottom stress weakens the offshore Ekman transport, a process known as buoyancy shutdown of the Ekman transport. Second, the thickening bottom boundary layer and weakening near-bottom speeds are balanced by an upslope ageostrophic transport. The convergence in the bottom transport induces adiabatic upwelling offshore of the shelf break. For a time period after the initial adjustment, scalings are identified for the upwelling speed and the length scale over which it occurs. Numerical experiments are used to test the scalings for a range of initial speeds and stratifications. Upwelling occurs within an inertial period, reaching values of up to 10 m day21 within 2 to 7 km offshore of the shelf break. Upwelling drives an interior secondary circulation that accelerates the alongshelf flow over the slope, forming a shelfbreak jet. The model results are compared with upwelling estimates from other models and observations near the Middle Atlantic Bight shelf break.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Benthuysen, Jessica and Thomas, Leif N. and Lentz, Steven J.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {294--312}
}

@article{benthuysen_nonlinear_2013,
	title = {Nonlinear stratified spindown over a slope},
	volume = {726},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112013002310},
	doi = {10.1017/jfm.2013.231},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Benthuysen, Jessica A. and Thomas, Leif N.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {371--403}
}

@book{benthuysen_linear_2010,
	address = {Woods Hole, MA},
	title = {Linear and nonlinear stratified spindown over sloping topography},
	url = {https://hdl.handle.net/1912/3635},
	abstract = {In a stratified rotating fluid, frictionally driven circulations couple with the buoyancy field over sloping topography. Analytical and numerical methods are used to quantify the impact of this coupling on the vertical circulation, spindown of geostrophic flows, and the formation of a shelfbreak jet.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	publisher = {Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution},
	author = {Benthuysen, Jessica A.},
	year = {2010},
	doi = {10.1575/1912/3635}
}

@article{beal_broadening_2016,
	title = {Broadening not strengthening of the {Agulhas} {Current} since the early 1990s},
	volume = {540},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature19853},
	doi = {10.1038/nature19853},
	language = {en},
	number = {7634},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Beal, Lisa M. and Elipot, Shane},
	month = dec,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {570--573}
}

@article{batchelor_small-scale_1959,
	title = {Small-scale variation of convected quantities like temperature in turbulent fluid {Part} 1. {General} discussion and the case of small conductivity},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S002211205900009X},
	doi = {10.1017/S002211205900009X},
	language = {en},
	number = {01},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Batchelor, G. K.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1959},
	pages = {113}
}

@article{bassis_heinrich_2017,
	title = {Heinrich events triggered by ocean forcing and modulated by isostatic adjustment},
	volume = {542},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature21069},
	doi = {10.1038/nature21069},
	language = {en},
	number = {7641},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Bassis, Jeremy N. and Petersen, Sierra V. and Mac Cathles, L.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {332--334}
}

@article{barker_interhemispheric_2009,
	title = {Interhemispheric {Atlantic} seesaw response during the last deglaciation},
	volume = {457},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature07770},
	doi = {10.1038/nature07770},
	language = {en},
	number = {7233},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Barker, Stephen and Diz, Paula and Vautravers, Maryline J. and Pike, Jennifer and Knorr, Gregor and Hall, Ian R. and Broecker, Wallace S.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {1097--1102}
}

@article{bakker_centennial-scale_2017,
	title = {Centennial-scale {Holocene} climate variations amplified by {Antarctic} {Ice} {Sheet} discharge},
	volume = {541},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature20582},
	doi = {10.1038/nature20582},
	language = {en},
	number = {7635},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Bakker, Pepijn and Clark, Peter U. and Golledge, Nicholas R. and Schmittner, Andreas and Weber, Michael E.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {72--76}
}

@article{bakker_fate_2016,
	title = {Fate of the {Atlantic} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation}: {Strong} decline under continued warming and {Greenland} melting: {AMOC} {PROJECTIONS} {FOR} {WARMING} {AND} {GIS} {MELT}},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {00948276},
	shorttitle = {Fate of the {Atlantic} {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2016GL070457},
	doi = {10.1002/2016GL070457},
	abstract = {The most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment report concludes that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) could weaken substantially but is very unlikely to collapse in the 21st century. However, the assessment largely neglected Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) mass loss, lacked a comprehensive uncertainty analysis, and was limited to the 21st century. Here in a community effort, improved estimates of GrIS mass loss are included in multicentennial projections using eight state-of-the-science climate models, and an AMOC emulator is used to provide a probabilistic uncertainty assessment. We find that GrIS melting affects AMOC projections, even though it is of secondary importance. By years 2090–2100, the AMOC weakens by 18\% [À3\%, À34\%; 90\% probability] in an intermediate greenhouse-gas mitigation scenario and by 37\% [À15\%, À65\%] under continued high emissions. Afterward, it stabilizes in the former but continues to decline in the latter to À74\% [+4\%, À100\%] by 2290–2300, with a 44\% likelihood of an AMOC collapse. This result suggests that an AMOC collapse can be avoided by CO2 mitigation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {23},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Bakker, P. and Schmittner, A. and Lenaerts, J. T. M. and Abe-Ouchi, A. and Bi, D. and van den Broeke, M. R. and Chan, W.-L. and Hu, A. and Beadling, R. L. and Marsland, S. J. and Mernild, S. H. and Saenko, O. A. and Swingedouw, D. and Sullivan, A. and Yin, J.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {12,252--12,260}
}

@article{arzel_can_2016,
	title = {Can {We} {Infer} {Diapycnal} {Mixing} {Rates} from the {World} {Ocean} {Temperature}–{Salinity} {Distribution}?},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0152.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0152.1},
	abstract = {The turbulent diapycnal mixing in the ocean is currently obtained from microstructure and finestructure measurements, dye experiments, and inverse models. This study presents a new method that infers the diapycnal mixing from low-resolution numerical calculations of the World Ocean whose temperatures and salinities are restored to the climatology. At the difference of robust general circulation ocean models, diapycnal diffusion is not prescribed but inferred. At steady state the buoyancy equation shows an equilibrium between the large-scale diapycnal advection and the restoring terms that take the place of the divergence of eddy buoyancy fluxes. The geography of the diapycnal flow reveals a strong regional variability of water mass transformations. Positive values of the diapycnal flow indicate an erosion of a deep-water mass and negative values indicate a creation. When the diapycnal flow is upward, a diffusion law can be fitted in the vertical and the diapycnal eddy diffusivity is obtained throughout the water column. The basin averages of diapycnal diffusivities are small in the first 1500 m [O(1025) m2 s21] and increase downward with bottom values of about 2.5 3 1024 m2 s21 in all ocean basins, with the exception of the Southern Ocean (508–308S), where they reach 12 3 1024 m2 s21. This study confirms the small diffusivity in the thermocline and the robustness of the higher canonical Munk’s value in the abyssal ocean. It indicates that the upward dianeutral transport in the Atlantic mostly takes place in the abyss and the upper ocean, supporting the quasi-adiabatic character of the middepth overturning.},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Arzel, Olivier and Colin de Verdière, Alain},
	month = dec,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {3751--3775}
}

@article{arrhenius_influence_nodate,
	title = {On the {Influence} of {Carbonic} {Acid} in the {Air} upon the {Temperature} of the {Ground}},
	author = {Arrhenius, Svante},
	pages = {22}
}

@article{arns_sea-level_2017,
	title = {Sea-level rise induced amplification of coastal protection design heights},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {2045-2322},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/srep40171},
	doi = {10.1038/srep40171},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Scientific Reports},
	author = {Arns, Arne and Dangendorf, Sönke and Jensen, Jürgen and Talke, Stefan and Bender, Jens and Pattiaratchi, Charitha},
	month = dec,
	year = {2017}
}

@article{armour_energy_2017,
	title = {Energy budget constraints on climate sensitivity in light of inconstant climate feedbacks},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {1758-678X, 1758-6798},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nclimate3278},
	doi = {10.1038/nclimate3278},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Armour, Kyle C.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {331--335}
}

@article{armour_climate_2011,
	title = {Climate commitment in an uncertain world: {CLIMATE} {COMMITMENT}},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {00948276},
	shorttitle = {Climate commitment in an uncertain world},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2010GL045850},
	doi = {10.1029/2010GL045850},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Armour, K. C. and Roe, G. H.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {n/a--n/a}
}

@article{armi_hydraulics_1986,
	title = {The hydraulics of two flowing layers with different densities},
	volume = {163},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112086002197},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112086002197},
	language = {en},
	number = {-1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Armi, Laurence},
	month = feb,
	year = {1986},
	pages = {27}
}

@article{archer_dynamics_1998,
	title = {Dynamics of fossil fuel {CO} $_{\textrm{2}}$ neutralization by marine {CaCO} $_{\textrm{3}}$},
	volume = {12},
	issn = {08866236},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/98GB00744},
	doi = {10.1029/98GB00744},
	abstract = {A detailedmodelof theoceancirculationandcarboncyclewascoupledto a mechanisticmodelof CaCO3 diagenesisin deepseasedimentsto simulatethe millennium-scale responseof the oceansto futurefossilfuel CO2 emissionsto theatmosphereanddeepsea. Simulationsof deepseainjectionof CO2 showthat CaCO3 dissolutionis sensitiveto passageof high-CO2 watersthroughthe Atlantic Ocean,but CaCO3 dissolutionhasa negligibleimpacton atmosphericpCO2 or the atmosphericstabilizationCO2 emissionin the comingcenturies.The ultimate fate of the fossilfuel CO2 will be to reactwith CaCO3 on the seafloorand on land. An initial CaCO3 dissolutionspikereversesthe net sedimentationratein the oceanuntil it is attenuatedby anenhancedverticalgradientof alkalinityafterabout1000years. The magnitudeof the initial spikeis sensitiveto assumptionsaboutthe kineticsfor CaCO3 dissolution,but subsequenbtehaviorappearsto belessmodeldependent.Neutralizationby seafloorCaCO3occurs on a timescaleof 5-6 kyr, andis limited to at most60-70\% of the fossilfuel release,evenif the fossilfuel releaseis smallerthanthe seafloorerodibleinventoryof CaCO3. Additional neutralizationby terrestrialCaCO3restoresa balancebetweenCaCO3weatheringandseafloor accumulationon a timescaleof 8.5 kyr, while the deficit of seafloorCaCO3 (the lysocline)is replenishedwith an e-foldingtimescaleof approximately18 kyr. The final equilibriumwith CaCO3 leaves7-8\% of thefossilfuel CO2 remainingin theatmospheret,o be neutralizedby the silicaterock cycleon a timeframeof hundredsof thousandsof years.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Global Biogeochemical Cycles},
	author = {Archer, David and Kheshgi, Haroon and Maier-Reimer, Ernst},
	month = jun,
	year = {1998},
	pages = {259--276}
}

@article{archer_fate_2005,
	title = {Fate of fossil fuel {CO} $_{\textrm{2}}$ in geologic time},
	volume = {110},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2004JC002625},
	doi = {10.1029/2004JC002625},
	language = {en},
	number = {C9},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Archer, David},
	year = {2005}
}

@article{archer_methane_2007,
	title = {Methane hydrate stability and anthropogenic climate change},
	language = {en},
	journal = {climate change},
	author = {Archer, D},
	year = {2007},
	pages = {66}
}

@article{anthony_coral_2016,
	title = {Coral {Reefs} {Under} {Climate} {Change} and {Ocean} {Acidification}: {Challenges} and {Opportunities} for {Management} and {Policy}},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {1543-5938, 1545-2050},
	shorttitle = {Coral {Reefs} {Under} {Climate} {Change} and {Ocean} {Acidification}},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085610},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085610},
	abstract = {Carbon emissions in an industrialized world have created two problems for coral reefs: climate change and ocean acidification. Climate change drives ocean warming, which impacts biological and ecological reef processes, triggers large-scale coral bleaching events, and fuels tropical storms. Ocean acidification slows reef growth, alters competitive interactions, and impairs population replenishment. For managers and policymakers, ocean warming and acidification represent an almost paradoxical challenge by eroding reef resilience and simultaneously increasing the demand for reef resilience. Here, I address this problem in the context of challenges and potential solutions. Management efforts can compensate for reduced coral reef resilience in the face of global change, but to a limited extent and over a limited time frame. Critically, a realistic perspective on what sustainability measures can be achieved for coral reefs in the face of ocean warming and acidification is important to avoid setting unachievable goals for regional and local-scale management programs.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Annual Review of Environment and Resources},
	author = {Anthony, Kenneth R.N.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {59--81}
}

@book{amrhein_inferring_2016,
	address = {Woods Hole, MA},
	title = {Inferring ocean circulation during the {Last} {Glacial} {Maximum} and last deglaciation using data and models},
	url = {https://hdl.handle.net/1912/8428},
	abstract = {Since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ∼ 20, 000 years ago) air temperatures warmed, sea level rose roughly 130 meters, and atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide increased. This thesis combines global models and paleoceanographic observations to constrain the ocean’s role in storing and transporting heat, salt, and other tracers during this time, with implications for understanding how the modern ocean works and how it might change in the future.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	publisher = {Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution},
	author = {Amrhein, Daniel E.},
	year = {2016},
	doi = {10.1575/1912/8428}
}

@article{alley_impacts_2016,
	title = {Impacts of warm water on {Antarctic} ice shelf stability through basal channel formation},
	volume = {9},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2675},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2675},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Alley, Karen E. and Scambos, Ted A. and Siegfried, Matthew R. and Fricker, Helen Amanda},
	month = apr,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {290--293}
}

@article{alford_near-inertial_2016,
	title = {Near-{Inertial} {Internal} {Gravity} {Waves} in the {Ocean}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1941-1405, 1941-0611},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-marine-010814-015746},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-marine-010814-015746},
	abstract = {We review the physics of near-inertial waves (NIWs) in the ocean and the observations, theory, and models that have provided our present knowledge. NIWs appear nearly everywhere in the ocean as a spectral peak at and just above the local inertial period f, and the longest vertical wavelengths can propagate at least hundreds of kilometers toward the equator from their source regions; shorter vertical wavelengths do not travel as far and do not contain as much energy, but lead to turbulent mixing owing to their high shear. NIWs are generated by a variety of mechanisms, including the wind, nonlinear interactions with waves of other frequencies, lee waves over bottom topography, and geostrophic adjustment; the partition among these is not known, although the wind is likely the most important. NIWs likely interact strongly with mesoscale and submesoscale motions, in ways that are just beginning to be understood.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Annual Review of Marine Science},
	author = {Alford, Matthew H. and MacKinnon, Jennifer A. and Simmons, Harper L. and Nash, Jonathan D.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {95--123}
}

@article{alford_turbulent_2013,
	title = {Turbulent mixing and hydraulic control of abyssal water in the {Samoan} {Passage}: {SAMOAN} {PASSAGE} {MIXING}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {00948276},
	shorttitle = {Turbulent mixing and hydraulic control of abyssal water in the {Samoan} {Passage}},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/grl.50684},
	doi = {10.1002/grl.50684},
	language = {en},
	number = {17},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Alford, Matthew H. and Girton, James B. and Voet, Gunnar and Carter, Glenn S. and Mickett, John B. and Klymak, Jody M.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {4668--4674}
}

@article{alford_redistribution_2003,
	title = {Redistribution of energy available for ocean mixing by long-range propagation of internal waves},
	volume = {423},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature01628},
	doi = {10.1038/nature01628},
	language = {en},
	number = {6936},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Alford, Matthew H.},
	month = may,
	year = {2003},
	pages = {159--162}
}

@article{alford_internal_2001,
	title = {Internal {Swell} {Generation}: {The} {Spatial} {Distribution} of {Energy} {Flux} from the {Wind} to {Mixed} {Layer} {Near}-{Inertial} {Motions}},
	volume = {31},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	shorttitle = {Internal {Swell} {Generation}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282001%29031%3C2359%3AISGTSD%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2001)031<2359:ISGTSD>2.0.CO;2},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Alford, Matthew H.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2001},
	pages = {2359--2368}
}

@article{albright_carbon_2018,
	title = {Carbon dioxide addition to coral reef waters suppresses net community calcification},
	volume = {555},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature25968},
	doi = {10.1038/nature25968},
	language = {en},
	number = {7697},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Albright, Rebecca and Takeshita, Yuichiro and Koweek, David A. and Ninokawa, Aaron and Wolfe, Kennedy and Rivlin, Tanya and Nebuchina, Yana and Young, Jordan and Caldeira, Ken},
	month = mar,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {516--519}
}

@article{abernathey_transport_2018,
	title = {Transport by {Lagrangian} {Vortices} in the {Eastern} {Pacific}},
	volume = {48},
	issn = {0022-3670, 1520-0485},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-17-0102.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-17-0102.1},
	abstract = {Rotationally coherent Lagrangian vortices (RCLVs) are identified from satellite-derived surface geostrophic velocities in the eastern Pacific (1808–1308W) using the objective (frame invariant) finite-time Lagrangian coherent structure detection method of Haller et al. based on the Lagrangian-averaged vorticity deviation. RCLVs are identified for 30-, 90-, and 270-day intervals over the entire satellite dataset, beginning in 1993. In contrast to structures identified using Eulerian eddy-tracking methods, the RCLVs maintain material coherence over the specified time intervals, making them suitable for material transport estimates. Statistics of RCLVs are compared to statistics of eddies identified from sea surface height (SSH) by Chelton et al. RCLVs and SSH eddies are found to propagate westward at similar speeds at each latitude, consistent with the Rossby wave dispersion relation. However, RCLVs are uniformly smaller and shorter-lived than SSH eddies. A coherent eddy diffusivity is derived to quantify the contribution of RCLVs to meridional transport; it is found that RCLVs contribute less than 1\% to net meridional dispersion and diffusion in this sector, implying that eddy transport of tracers is mostly due to incoherent motions, such as swirling and filamentation outside of the eddy cores, rather than coherent meridional translation of eddies themselves. These findings call into question prior estimates of coherent eddy transport based on Eulerian eddy identification methods.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Abernathey, Ryan and Haller, George},
	month = mar,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {667--685}
}

@article{abbot_controls_2009,
	title = {Controls on the {Activation} and {Strength} of a {High}-{Latitude} {Convective} {Cloud} {Feedback}},
	volume = {66},
	issn = {0022-4928, 1520-0469},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2008JAS2840.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2008JAS2840.1},
	abstract = {Previous work has shown that a convective cloud feedback can greatly increase high-latitude surface temperature upon the removal of sea ice and can keep sea ice from forming throughout polar night. This feedback activates at increased greenhouse gas concentrations. It may help to explain the warm ‘‘equable climates’’ of the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene eras (;100 to ;35 million years ago) and may be relevant for future climate under global warming. Here, the factors that determine the critical threshold CO2 concentration at which this feedback is active and the magnitude of the warming caused by the feedback are analyzed using both a highly idealized model and NCAR’s single-column atmospheric model (SCAM) run under Arctic-like conditions. The critical CO2 is particularly important because it helps to establish the relevance of the feedback for past and future climates.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Abbot, Dorian S. and Tziperman, Eli},
	month = feb,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {519--529}
}

@book{abarbanel_general_2011,
	title = {General circulation of the ocean},
	isbn = {978-1-4612-9093-3},
	language = {en},
	author = {Abarbanel, H. D. I and Young, W. R},
	year = {2011},
	note = {OCLC: 935720721}
}

@article{Ledwell1993,
	title = {Evidence for slow mixing across the pycnocline from an open-ocean tracer-release experiment},
	volume = {364},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/364701a0},
	doi = {10.1038/364701a0},
	number = {6439},
	urldate = {2016-12-13},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Ledwell, James R. and Watson, Andrew J. and Law, Clifford S.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1993},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {701--703}
}

@article{Jouzel1993a,
	title = {Extending the {Vostok} ice-core record of palaeoclimate to the penultimate glacial period},
	volume = {364},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/364407a0},
	doi = {10.1038/364407a0},
	number = {6436},
	urldate = {2017-05-11},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Jouzel, J. and Barkov, N. I. and Barnola, J. M. and Bender, M. and Chappellaz, J. and Genthon, C. and Kotlyakov, V. M. and Lipenkov, V. and Lorius, C. and Petit, J. R. and Raynaud, D. and Raisbeck, G. and Ritz, C. and Sowers, T. and Stievenard, M. and Yiou, F. and Yiou, P.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1993},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {407--412}
}

@article{barker_pressure_2011,
	title = {Pressure {Sensor} {Drifts} in {Argo} and {Their} {Impacts}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0739-0572},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2011JTECHO831.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2011JTECHO831.1},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology},
	author = {Barker, Paul M. and Dunn, Jeff R. and Domingues, Catia M. and Wijffels, Susan E.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {1036--1049}
}

@article{Blanke1999,
	title = {Warm {Water} {Paths} in the {Equatorial} {Atlantic} as {Diagnosed} with a {General} {Circulation} {Model}},
	abstract = {Abstract Monthly mean velocity fields from a global ocean general circulation model are used to study the main circulation patterns within the upper 1200 m of the equatorial Atlantic. Some recently developed Lagrangian techniques are used to picture and quantify the routes followed in the model by distinct water mass classes, defined by their initial temperature on model transatlantic sections at 10°S and 10°N. The qualitative description in terms of equatorial pathways of this warm component of the so-called global “conveyor belt” is found coherent with the most recent circulation schemes inferred from direct measurements. Diagnostics emphasize the crucial role of the western boundary current system and that of the equatorial subsurface jets in distributing the flow in the equatorial domain, both for northward-flowing and southward-recirculating warm water masses. As the model tracer fields are constrained to remain close to the observed climatology outside the equatorial strip, the circulation calculate...},
	urldate = {2016-06-28},
	journal = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1999)029{\textless}2753:WWPITE{\textgreater}2.0.CO;2},
	author = {Blanke, Bruno and Arhan, Michel and Madec, Gurvan and Roche, Sophie and Blanke, Bruno and Arhan, Michel and Madec, Gurvan and Roche, Sophie},
	year = {1999}
}

@article{armi_reply_1979,
	title = {Reply to {Comments} by {C}. {Garrett}},
	volume = {84},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC084iC08p05097},
	doi = {10.1029/JC084iC08p05097},
	number = {C8},
	urldate = {2018-09-07},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Armi, Laurence},
	month = aug,
	year = {1979},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	pages = {5097}
}

@article{farneti_role_2010,
	title = {The {Role} of {Mesoscale} {Eddies} in the {Remote} {Oceanic} {Response} to {Altered} {Southern} {Hemisphere} {Winds}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JPO4480.1},
	abstract = {It has been suggested that a strengthening of the Southern Hemisphere winds would induce a more vigorous overturning through an increased northward Ekman flux, bringing more light waters into the oceanic basins and enhancing the upwelling of North Atlantic Deep Water in the Southern Ocean, thereby increasing ocean ventilation. Simulations from a coarse-and a fine-resolution version of a coupled model, subject to idealized wind stress changes in the Southern Ocean, are presented. In the fine-resolution eddy-permitting model, changes in poleward eddy fluxes largely compensate for the enhanced equatorward Ekman transport in the Southern Ocean. As a consequence, northward transport of light waters, pycnocline depth, Northern Hemisphere overturning, and Southern Ocean upwelling anomalies are much reduced compared with simulations in the coarse-resolution model with parameterized eddies. These results suggest a relatively weak sensitivity of present-day global ocean overturning circulation to the projected strengthening of the Southern Hemisphere winds.},
	number = {1999},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Farneti, Riccardo and Delworth, Thomas L.},
	year = {2010},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	pages = {2348--2354}
}

@article{gray_method_2015,
	title = {A method for multiscale optimal analysis with application to {Argo} data},
	volume = {120},
	issn = {21699275},
	doi = {10.1002/2014JC010208.Received},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research Oceans},
	author = {Gray, Alison R. and Riser, Stephen C.},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {4340--4356}
}

@article{Sarmiento1984,
	title = {A new model for the role of the oceans in determining atmospheric {PCO2}},
	volume = {308},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/308621a0},
	doi = {10.1038/308621a0},
	number = {5960},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Sarmiento, J. L. and Toggweiler, J. R.},
	month = apr,
	year = {1984},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {621--624}
}

@article{Munk1966,
	title = {Abyssal recipes},
	volume = {13},
	issn = {00117471},
	doi = {10.1016/0011-7471(66)90602-4},
	abstract = {Vertical distributions in the interior Pacific (excluding the top and bottom kilometer) are not inconsistent with a simple model involving a constant upward vertical velocity w ? 1·2 cm day?1 and eddy diffusivity ? ? 1·3 cm2 sec?1. Thus temperature and salinity can be fitted by exponential-like solutions [? · d2/dz2 ? w · d/dz] T,S = 0, with ?/w ? 1 km the appropriate "scale height." For Carbon 14 a decay term must be included, [ ] 14C = ? 14C; a fitting of the solution to the observed 14C distribution yields (if?/?2? 200 years for then appropriate "scale time," and permits ? and ? to be separately determined. Using the foregoing values, the upward flux of Radium in deep water is found to be roughly 1·5 × 10?1 g cm?1 sec?1, as compared to 3 × 10?21 g cm?2 sec sedimentary measurements by Image and Image (1963). Oxygen consumption is computed at 0·004 (ml/l) year?1. The vertical distributions of T,S, 14C and O2 are consistent with the corresponding south-north gradients in the deep Pacific, provided there is an average northward drift of at leat a few millimetres per second.  How can one meaningfully interpret the inferred rates of upwelling and diffusion? The annual freezing of 2·1 × 1019 g of Antarctic pack ice is associated with bottom water formation in the ration 43 : 1, yielding and estimated 4 × 1020g year?1 of Pacific bottom water ? = 1·2 cm day?1 implies 6 × 1020g year?1. I have attemped, wiothout much success, to interpret ? froma variety of viewpoints: from mixing along the ocean boundaries, from thermodynamic and biological processes, and from internal tides. Following the work of Image and Image (1962), it is found that surface tides are scattered by the irregular bottom into modes with an associated energy flux of 4 × 10?6 ergs g?1 (one sixth total tidal dissipation). Such modes can produce shear instability in the Richardson sence. It is found that internal tides provides a marginal but not impossible mechanism for turbulent diffusion in the interior oceans.},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts},
	author = {Munk, Walter H.},
	year = {1966},
	note = {arXiv: cs/9605103
ISBN: 1600117471},
	pages = {707--730}
}

@article{munk_abyssal_1998,
	title = {Abyssal {Recipes} {II}: energetics of tidal and wind mixing},
	volume = {45},
	journal = {Deep-Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers},
	author = {Munk, Walter H. and Wunsch, Carl},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {1978--2010}
}

@article{sebille_lagrangian_2016,
	title = {Lagrangian ocean analysis : fundamentals and practices},
	author = {Sebille, Erik Van and Kjellsson, Joakim and Macgilchrist, Graeme A and Stephen, M},
	year = {2016}
}

@article{garrett_comment_1979,
	title = {Comment on ‘{Some} evidence for boundary mixing in the deep ocean’ by {Laurence} {Armi}},
	volume = {84},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC084iC08p05095},
	doi = {10.1029/JC084iC08p05095},
	number = {C8},
	urldate = {2018-09-07},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Garrett, Christopher},
	month = aug,
	year = {1979},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	pages = {5095}
}

@article{Delworth2012,
	title = {Simulated {Climate} and {Climate} {Change} in the {GFDL} {CM2}.5 {High}-{Resolution} {Coupled} {Climate} {Model}},
	volume = {25},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00316.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00316.1},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Delworth, Thomas L. and Rosati, Anthony and Anderson, Whit and Adcroft, Alistair J. and Balaji, V. and Benson, Rusty and Dixon, Keith and Griffies, Stephen M. and Lee, Hyun-Chul and Pacanowski, Ronald C. and Vecchi, Gabriel A. and Wittenberg, Andrew T. and Zeng, Fanrong and Zhang, Rong},
	month = apr,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {2755--2781}
}

@article{Haine2002,
	title = {A {Generalized} {Transport} {Theory}: {Water}-{Mass} {Composition} and {Age}},
	abstract = {Abstract A general theory to describe and understand advective and diffusive ocean transport is reported. It allows any passive tracer field with an atmospheric source to be constructed by superposing sea surface contributions with a generalized Green's function called the boundary propagator of the passive tracer equation. The boundary propagator has the interpretation of the joint water-mass and transit-time distribution from the sea surface. The theory thus includes the classical oceanographic idea of water-mass analysis and extends it to allow for a distribution of transit times from the sea surface. The joint water-mass and transit-time distribution contains complete information about the transport processes in the flow. It captures this information in a more accessible way than using velocity and diffusivity fields, however, at least for the case of sequestration and transport of dissolved material by the ocean circulation. The boundary propagator is thus the natural quantity to consider when discus...},
	urldate = {2016-06-29},
	journal = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032{\textless}1932:AGTTWM{\textgreater}2.0.CO;2},
	author = {Haine, Thomas W. N. and Hall, Timothy M.},
	year = {2002}
}

@article{curry_glacial_2005,
	title = {Glacial water mass geometry and the distribution of δ $^{\textrm{13}}$ {C} of Σ{CO} $_{\textrm{2}}$ in the western {Atlantic} {Ocean}},
	volume = {20},
	issn = {08838305},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2004PA001021},
	doi = {10.1029/2004PA001021},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2016-06-12},
	journal = {Paleoceanography},
	author = {Curry, W. B. and Oppo, D. W.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2005},
	keywords = {ice age, ocean chemistry, ocean circulation},
	pages = {n/a--n/a}
}

@article{bretherton_f._p._technique_1976,
	title = {A technique for objective analysis and design of oceanographic experiment applied to \{{MODE}\}-73},
	volume = {23},
	number = {April 1975},
	journal = {Deep Sea Res.},
	author = {{Bretherton F. P.} and Davis, R E and Fandry, C B},
	year = {1976},
	pages = {559--582}
}

@article{Armi1978,
	title = {Some evidence for boundary mixing in the deep {Ocean}},
	volume = {83},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC083iC04p01971},
	doi = {10.1029/JC083iC04p01971},
	number = {C4},
	urldate = {2016-12-13},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Armi, Laurence},
	year = {1978},
	pages = {1971}
}

@article{moum_mixing_1986,
	title = {Mixing in the {Main} {Thermocline}},
	volume = {16},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281986%29016%3C1250%3AMITMT%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1986)016<1250:MITMT>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract A series of profiles of velocity microstructure along 152°E in the western North Pacific Ocean were collected in May–June 1982. Large, averaged turbulent dissipation rates, ϵ, found in the main thermocline (400 to 1000 m) were determined by a combination of large independent estimates of ϵ and a greater rate of occurrence of turbulent events in the main thermocline than elsewhere. Concurrently we find that averaged values of ϵ exhibit a positive dependence on the buoyancy frequency, N, and that form ϵ = aNγ is best fit by γ = 1 when only the data below 400 m are considered. Of the more than 5000 m of data collected below 1000 m depth, 12\% showed measurable turbulence and dominated the depth averages. A deep ocean estimate of an upper bound to the eddy coefficient for vertical diffusion, Kρ, is 10−4 m2 s−1 and not significantly different from the value estimated by Munk. The inferred dependence of the mass flux with depth indicates the relative significance of vertical mixing in the main thermocli...},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2018-11-26},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Moum, J. N. and Osborn, T. R.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1986},
	pages = {1250--1259}
}

@article{clement_turbulent_2017,
	title = {Turbulent {Mixing} in a {Deep} {Fracture} {Zone} on the {Mid}-{Atlantic} {Ridge}},
	volume = {47},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0264.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-16-0264.1},
	abstract = {AbstractMidocean ridge fracture zones channel bottom waters in the eastern Brazil Basin in regions of intensified deep mixing. The mechanisms responsible for the deep turbulent mixing inside the numerous midocean fracture zones, whether affected by the local or the nonlocal canyon topography, are still subject to debate. To discriminate those mechanisms and to discern the canyon mean flow, two moorings sampled a deep canyon over and away from a sill/contraction. A 2-layer exchange flow, accelerated at the sill, transports 0.04–0.10-Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) up canyon in the deep layer. At the sill, the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy ε increases as measured from microstructure profilers and as inferred from a parameterization of vertical kinetic energy. Cross-sill density and microstructure transects reveal an overflow potentially hydraulically controlled and modulated by fortnightly tides. During spring to neap tides, ε varies from O(10−9) to O(10−10) W kg−1 below 3500 m around the 2-layer inte...},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2018-11-18},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Clément, Louis and Thurnherr, Andreas M. and St. Laurent, Louis C.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {1873--1896}
}

@article{thurnherr_mixing_2005,
	title = {Mixing {Associated} with {Sills} in a {Canyon} on the {Midocean} {Ridge} {Flank}*},
	volume = {35},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO2773.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO2773.1},
	abstract = {Abstract To close the global overturning circulation, the production and sinking of dense water at high latitudes must be balanced elsewhere by buoyancy gain and upward vertical motion. Hydrographic and microstructure observations from the Brazil Basin in the South Atlantic Ocean indicate that most of the abyssal mixing there takes place on the topographically rough flank of the midocean ridge. In previous studies it has been suggested that the high level of abyssal mixing observed on the ridge flank is primarily caused by breaking internal waves forced by tidal currents. Here, the results from a detailed analysis of velocity, hydrographic, and microstructure data from a ridge-flank canyon are presented. Two-year-long current-meter records indicate that within the canyon there is a significant along-axial mean flow down the density gradient toward the ridge crest. Five hundred meters above the canyon floor the kinetic energy in the subinertial band exceeds that associated with the semidiurnal tides by app...},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2018-11-18},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Thurnherr, A. M. and St. Laurent, L. C. and Speer, K. G. and Toole, J. M. and Ledwell, J. R. and Thurnherr, A. M. and Laurent, L. C. St. and Speer, K. G. and Toole, J. M. and Ledwell, J. R.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {1370--1381}
}

@article{winters_tidally_2015,
	title = {Tidally driven mixing and dissipation in the stratified boundary layer above steep submarine topography},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2015GL064676},
	doi = {10.1002/2015GL064676},
	number = {17},
	urldate = {2018-11-18},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Winters, K. B.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2015},
	note = {Publisher: John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd},
	keywords = {mixing and dissipation, sloping topography, stratified boundary layer, tide‐topography interaction},
	pages = {7123--7130}
}

@article{gargett_mixing_1995,
	title = {Mixing {Efficiencies} in {Turbulent} {Tidal} {Fronts}: {Results} from {Direct} and {Indirect} {Measurements} of {Density} {Flux}},
	volume = {25},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281995%29025%3C2583%3AMEITTF%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1995)025<2583:MEITTF>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract The authors report direct measurements of density flux at a single depth in a turbulent tidal flow, made by towing a CTD beside the vertical beam of a modified acoustic Doppler current profiler. The direct flux estimates are compared with indirect estimates of density flux based on simultaneous microscale profiler measurements of ϵ and χ, dissipation rates of turbulent kinetic energy and of temperature variance, respectively. Two mixing efficiency estimates are made using Γd from the ratios of indirect flux estimates and Γo from the ratio of direct to ϵ flux estimates. The analysis indicates that • Γd is no different from that determined in other open ocean experiments and is independent of the sign of the flux • Γ d {\textless} {\textbar}Γo{\textbar}, regardless of the sign of the flux • Γo (flux {\textgreater} 0) {\textless} {\textbar}Γo{\textbar} (flux {\textless} 0). The consequences for interpretation of ocean microstructure flux estimates are discussed.},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2018-11-18},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Gargett, Ann E. and Moum, J. N.},
	month = nov,
	year = {1995},
	pages = {2583--2608}
}

@article{loder_topographic_1980,
	title = {Topographic {Rectification} of {Tidal} {Currents} on the {Sides} of {Georges} {Bank}},
	volume = {10},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281980%29010%3C1399%3ATROTCO%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1980)010<1399:TROTCO>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract The rectification of M2 tidal currents on the sloping sides of Georges Bank is predicted to make an important year-round contribution to its observed mean clockwise circulation. A rectification mechanism involving continuity and Coriolis effects, but regulated by bottom friction (Huthnance, 1973), is operative. Huthnance's (1973) depth-averaged theory for the along-isobath mean Eulerian current associated with this mechanism and with a second, purely frictional, mechanism is extended to include mean current-tidal current interaction, spatially-varying bottom friction and rotary tidal currents. The ratio of cross-isobath tidal excursion Le to topographic length scale L is found to be an important nondimensional parameter in determining the degree of nonlinearity of the Coriolis mechanism. A significant Stokes velocity is associated with both rectification processes, so that, for the Coriolis mechanism, the mean Lagrangian current is only about two-thirds of the mean Eulerian current. On the sides ...},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2018-11-18},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Loder, John W.},
	month = sep,
	year = {1980},
	pages = {1399--1416}
}

@article{watson_rapid_2013,
	title = {Rapid cross-density ocean mixing at mid-depths in the {Drake} {Passage} measured by tracer release},
	volume = {501},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/nature12432},
	doi = {10.1038/nature12432},
	abstract = {An ocean tracer release in the Drake Passage, between South America and Antarctica, shows that its rough bottom topography causes greatly increased internal mixing, by a factor of about 20 at depths of around 1,500 metres.},
	number = {7467},
	urldate = {2018-11-16},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Watson, Andrew J. and Ledwell, James R. and Messias, Marie-José and King, Brian A. and Mackay, Neill and Meredith, Michael P. and Mills, Benjamin and Naveira Garabato, Alberto C.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2013},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	keywords = {Physical oceanography},
	pages = {408--411}
}

@article{ledwell_diapycnal_2011,
	title = {Diapycnal {Mixing} in the {Antarctic} {Circumpolar} {Current}},
	volume = {41},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JPO4557.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JPO4557.1},
	abstract = {Abstract The vertical dispersion of a tracer released on a density surface near 1500-m depth in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current west of Drake Passage indicates that the diapycnal diffusivity, averaged over 1 yr and over tens of thousands of square kilometers, is (1.3 ± 0.2) × 10−5 m2 s−1. Diapycnal diffusivity estimated from turbulent kinetic energy dissipation measurements about the area occupied by the tracer in austral summer 2010 was somewhat less, but still within a factor of 2, at (0.75 ± 0.07) × 10−5 m2 s−1. Turbulent diapycnal mixing of this intensity is characteristic of the midlatitude ocean interior, where the energy for mixing is believed to derive from internal wave breaking. Indeed, despite the frequent and intense atmospheric forcing experienced by the Southern Ocean, the amplitude of finescale velocity shear sampled about the tracer was similar to background amplitudes in the midlatitude ocean, with levels elevated to only 20\%–50\% above the Garrett–Munk reference spectrum. These results ...},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-11-16},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Ledwell, J. R. and St. Laurent, L. C. and Girton, J. B. and Toole, J. M.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {241--246}
}

@article{burns_dedalus:_2016,
	title = {Dedalus: {Flexible} framework for spectrally solving differential equations},
	url = {http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ascl.soft03015B},
	urldate = {2018-11-10},
	journal = {Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1603.015},
	author = {Burns, Keaton J. and Vasil, Geoffrey M. and Oishi, Jeffrey S. and Lecoanet, Daniel and Brown, Benjamin},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {Software}
}

@article{mashayek_efficiency_2017,
	title = {Efficiency of turbulent mixing in the abyssal ocean circulation},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2016GL072452},
	doi = {10.1002/2016GL072452},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2018-11-07},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Mashayek, A. and Salehipour, H. and Bouffard, D. and Caulfield, C. P. and Ferrari, R. and Nikurashin, M. and Peltier, W. R. and Smyth, W. D.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	keywords = {climate dynamics, ocean circulation, oceanography, shear turbulence, stratified turbulence, turbulent mixing},
	pages = {6296--6306}
}

@article{emile-geay_geothermal_2009,
	title = {Geothermal heating, diapycnal mixing and the abyssal circulation},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {1812-0792},
	url = {http://www.ocean-sci.net/5/203/2009/},
	doi = {10.5194/os-5-203-2009},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-11-07},
	journal = {Ocean Science},
	author = {Emile-Geay, J. and Madec, G.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {203--217}
}

@article{nikurashin_overturning_2013,
	title = {Overturning circulation driven by breaking internal waves in the deep ocean},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/grl.50542},
	doi = {10.1002/grl.50542},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2018-10-24},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Nikurashin, Maxim and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	month = jun,
	year = {2013},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	keywords = {internal tides, internal waves, lee waves, overturning circulation, turbulent mixing, water‐mass transformation},
	pages = {3133--3137}
}

@article{abernathey_water-mass_2016,
	title = {Water-mass transformation by sea ice in the upper branch of the {Southern} {Ocean} overturning},
	volume = {9},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2749},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2749},
	abstract = {Sea-ice formation is a key factor in the lower branch of the Southern Ocean overturning circulation. Observation-based data in conjunction with a water-mass transformation framework reveal that sea ice plays a central role in the upper branch too.},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2018-10-24},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Abernathey, Ryan P. and Cerovecki, Ivana and Holland, Paul R. and Newsom, Emily and Mazloff, Matt and Talley, Lynne D.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2016},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {596--601}
}

@article{osborn_estimates_1980,
	title = {Estimates of the {Local} {Rate} of {Vertical} {Diffusion} from {Dissipation} {Measurements}},
	volume = {10},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281980%29010%3C0083%3AEOTLRO%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1980)010<0083:EOTLRO>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract Scaling of the turbulent energy equation suggests the balance of terms in the ocean is between turbulent production, dissipation and the loss to buoyancy. In this paper two models for the source of oceanic turbulence are considered; namely, production by the Reynolds stress working against a time variable mean shear, and the gravitational collapse of Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities. Both of these shear instabilities are believed to be important in the ocean. Using values for the critical flux Richardson number and the measurements from studies of Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities, the efficiency of turbulent mixing is shown to be comparable for the two models. Therefore, a general relationship between the dissipation rate and the buoyancy flux due to the small-scale turbulent velocity fluctuations is derived. The result is expressed as an upper bound on the value of the turbulent eddy coefficient for mass Kρ ⩽ 0.2ϵ/N2. Values of Kρ are calculated from recent oceanic measurements of energy dissipation...},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-10-21},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Osborn, T. R.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1980},
	pages = {83--89}
}

@article{gula_topographic_2016,
	title = {Topographic generation of submesoscale centrifugal instability and energy dissipation},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/ncomms12811},
	doi = {10.1038/ncomms12811},
	abstract = {Most of the ocean kinetic energy is contained in the large scale geostrophic currents and the pathways of energy toward dissipation are still in question. Here, the authors show that flow-topography interactions can generate submesoscale wakes and provide an efficient route to energy dissipation.},
	urldate = {2018-10-20},
	journal = {Nature Communications},
	author = {Gula, Jonathan and Molemaker, M. Jeroen and McWilliams, James C.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2016},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	keywords = {Physical oceanography},
	pages = {12811}
}

@article{spall_large-scale_2001,
	title = {Large-{Scale} {Circulations} {Forced} by {Localized} {Mixing} over a {Sloping} {Bottom}*},
	volume = {31},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%282001%29031%3C2369%3ALSCFBL%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2001)031<2369:LSCFBL>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract A simple, nonlinear, two-layer, planetary geostrophic model of the large-scale circulation forced by localized mixing over a sloping bottom is discussed. The model is forced by parameterized diapycnal mixing at the density interface and/or by a mass flux downward into (unresolved) deep topographic canyons. Two nondimensional parameters are identified: the ratio of the change in Coriolis parameter over the horizontal mixing length scale to the nominal Coriolis parameter and the ratio of the advective speed to the Rossby wave phase speed. The former controls the strength of horizontal recirculation gyres that are forced by spatially variable diapycnal mixing, while the latter is a measure of the importance of nonlinearity in the density equation. When bottom topography is introduced, bottom pressure torque becomes important and the traditional strong horizontal recirculation gyre found for mixing over a flat bottom (beta plume) is gradually replaced by a zonal flow into or out of the mixing region ...},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2018-10-16},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Spall, Michael A.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2001},
	pages = {2369--2384}
}
@article{edwards_influence_1995,
	title = {The {Influence} of {Distributed} {Sources} and {Upwelling} on the {Baroclinic} {Structure} of the {Abyssal} {Circulation}},
	volume = {25},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281995%29025%3C2259%3ATIODSA%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1995)025<2259:TIODSA>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract The study of a simple, continuously stratified model of the abyssal ocean driven by upwelling out of the abyss into the main thermocline and by source fluid entering the basin through northern, western, and southern bound-aries is reported. Our approach divides the deep mean into an inviscid interior and frictional boundary-layer regions. The interior circulation is fully determined by the horizontal distribution of upwelling and by the net, vertical distribution of sources entering the basin. Forcing by the local upwelling drives a barotropic velocity field, and remote forcing by both the upwelling and sources generates an underlying baroclinic flow, which can be considerably stronger and of opposite sign at some depths. The boundary current functions to redistribute around the perimeter fluid entering the boundary regions either through the basin walls or from the interior. In contrast to the interior flow, it depends also on the geographical location of sources. The boundary current is divided...},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2018-10-16},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Edwards, Christopher A. and Pedlosky, Joseph},
	month = oct,
	year = {1995},
	pages = {2259--2284}
}

@article{taylor_buoyancy_2010,
	title = {Buoyancy and {Wind}-{Driven} {Convection} at {Mixed} {Layer} {Density} {Fronts}},
	volume = {40},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JPO4365.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JPO4365.1},
	abstract = {Abstract In this study, the influence of a geostrophically balanced horizontal density gradient on turbulent convection in the ocean is examined using numerical simulations and a theoretical scaling analysis. Starting with uniform horizontal and vertical buoyancy gradients, convection is driven by imposing a heat loss or a destabilizing wind stress at the upper boundary, and a turbulent layer soon develops. For weak lateral fronts, turbulent convection results in a nearly homogeneous mixed layer (ML) whose depth grows in time. For strong fronts, a turbulent layer develops, but this layer is not an ML in the traditional sense because it is characterized by persistent horizontal and vertical gradients in density. The turbulent layer is, however, nearly homogeneous in potential vorticity (PV), with a value near zero. Using the PV budget, a scaling for the depth of the turbulent low PV layer and its time dependence is derived that compares well with numerical simulations. Two dynamical regimes are identified....},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2018-10-15},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Taylor, John R. and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	month = jun,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {1222--1242}
}

@article{walin_relation_1982,
	title = {On the relation between sea-surface heat flow and thermal circulation in the ocean},
	volume = {34},
	url = {http://tellusa.net/index.php/tellusa/article/view/10801},
	doi = {10.1111/j.2153-3490.1982.tb01806.x},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-09-28},
	journal = {Tellus},
	author = {Walin, Gösta},
	month = apr,
	year = {1982},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley/Blackwell (10.1111)},
	pages = {187--195}
}

@article{krasting_role_2018,
	title = {Role of {Ocean} {Model} {Formulation} in {Climate} {Response} {Uncertainty}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0035.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0035.1},
	abstract = {AbstractOceanic heat uptake (OHU) is a significant source of uncertainty in both the transient and equilibrium responses to increasing the planetary radiative forcing. OHU differs among climate models and is related in part to their representation of vertical and lateral mixing. This study examines the role of ocean model formulation – specifically the choice of vertical coordinate and strength of background diapycnal diffusivity (Kd) – in the millennial-scale near-equilibrium climate response to a quadrupling of atmospheric CO2. Using two fully-coupled Earth System Models (ESMs) with nearly identical atmosphere, land, sea ice, and biogeochemical components, it is possible to independently configure their ocean model components with different formulations and produce similar near-equilibrium climate responses. The SST responses are similar between the two models (r2 = 0.75, global average ∼ 4.3 °C) despite their initial pre-industrial climate mean states differing by 0.4 °C globally. The surface and inter...},
	urldate = {2018-09-28},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Krasting, John P. and Stouffer, Ronald J. and Griffies, Stephen M. and Hallberg, Robert W. and Malyshev, Sergey L. and Samuels, Bonita L. and Sentman, Lori T.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {JCLI--D--18--0035.1}
}

@article{dunne_gfdls_2012,
	title = {{GFDL}’s {ESM2} {Global} {Coupled} {Climate}–{Carbon} {Earth} {System} {Models}. {Part} {I}: {Physical} {Formulation} and {Baseline} {Simulation} {Characteristics}},
	volume = {25},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00560.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00560.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThe physical climate formulation and simulation characteristics of two new global coupled carbon–climate Earth System Models, ESM2M and ESM2G, are described. These models demonstrate similar climate fidelity as the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory’s previous Climate Model version 2.1 (CM2.1) while incorporating explicit and consistent carbon dynamics. The two models differ exclusively in the physical ocean component; ESM2M uses Modular Ocean Model version 4p1 with vertical pressure layers while ESM2G uses Generalized Ocean Layer Dynamics with a bulk mixed layer and interior isopycnal layers. Differences in the ocean mean state include the thermocline depth being relatively deep in ESM2M and relatively shallow in ESM2G compared to observations. The crucial role of ocean dynamics on climate variability is highlighted in El Niño–Southern Oscillation being overly strong in ESM2M and overly weak in ESM2G relative to observations. Thus, while ESM2G might better represent climate changes relating to...},
	number = {19},
	urldate = {2018-09-24},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Dunne, John P. and John, Jasmin G. and Adcroft, Alistair J. and Griffies, Stephen M. and Hallberg, Robert W. and Shevliakova, Elena and Stouffer, Ronald J. and Cooke, William and Dunne, Krista A. and Harrison, Matthew J. and Krasting, John P. and Malyshev, Sergey L. and Milly, P. C. D. and Phillipps, Peter J. and Sentman, Lori T. and Samuels, Bonita L. and Spelman, Michael J. and Winton, Michael and Wittenberg, Andrew T. and Zadeh, Niki},
	month = oct,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {6646--6665}
}

@article{winton_influence_2013,
	title = {Influence of {Ocean} and {Atmosphere} {Components} on {Simulated} {Climate} {Sensitivities}},
	volume = {26},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00121.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00121.1},
	abstract = {AbstractThe influence of alternative ocean and atmosphere subcomponents on climate model simulation of transient sensitivities is examined by comparing three GFDL climate models used for phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5). The base model ESM2M is closely related to GFDL’s CMIP3 climate model version 2.1 (CM2.1), and makes use of a depth coordinate ocean component. The second model, ESM2G, is identical to ESM2M but makes use of an isopycnal coordinate ocean model. The authors compare the impact of this “ocean swap” with an “atmosphere swap” that produces the GFDL Climate Model version 3 (CM3) by replacing the AM2 atmospheric component with AM3 while retaining a depth coordinate ocean model. The atmosphere swap is found to have much larger influence on sensitivities of global surface temperature and Northern Hemisphere sea ice cover. The atmosphere swap also introduces a multidecadal response time scale through its indirect influence on heat uptake. Despite significant differences ...},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-09-24},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Winton, Michael and Adcroft, Alistair and Griffies, Stephen M. and Hallberg, Robert W. and Horowitz, Larry W. and Stouffer, Ronald J.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {231--245}
}

@article{hallberg_sensitivity_2013,
	title = {Sensitivity of {Twenty}-{First}-{Century} {Global}-{Mean} {Steric} {Sea} {Level} {Rise} to {Ocean} {Model} {Formulation}},
	volume = {26},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00506.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00506.1},
	abstract = {AbstractTwo comprehensive Earth system models (ESMs), identical apart from their oceanic components, are used to estimate the uncertainty in projections of twenty-first-century sea level rise due to representational choices in ocean physical formulation. Most prominent among the formulation differences is that one (ESM2M) uses a traditional z-coordinate ocean model, while the other (ESM2G) uses an isopycnal-coordinate ocean. As evidence of model fidelity, differences in twentieth-century global-mean steric sea level rise are not statistically significant between either model and observed trends. However, differences between the two models’ twenty-first-century projections are systematic and both statistically and climatically significant. By 2100, ESM2M exhibits 18\% higher global steric sea level rise than ESM2G for all four radiative forcing scenarios (28–49 mm higher), despite having similar changes between the models in the near-surface ocean for several scenarios. These differences arise primarily fro...},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2018-09-24},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Hallberg, Robert and Adcroft, Alistair and Dunne, John P. and Krasting, John P. and Stouffer, Ronald J.},
	month = may,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {2947--2956}
}

@article{heuze_changes_2015,
	title = {Changes in {Global} {Ocean} {Bottom} {Properties} and {Volume} {Transports} in {CMIP5} {Models} under {Climate} {Change} {Scenarios}*},
	volume = {28},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00381.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00381.1},
	abstract = {AbstractChanges in bottom temperature, salinity, and density in the global ocean by 2100 for CMIP5 climate models are investigated for the climate change scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. The mean of 24 models shows a decrease in density in all deep basins, except the North Atlantic, which becomes denser. The individual model responses to climate change forcing are more complex: regarding temperature, the 24 models predict a warming of the bottom layer of the global ocean; in salinity, there is less agreement regarding the sign of the change, especially in the Southern Ocean. The magnitude and equatorward extent of these changes also vary strongly among models. The changes in properties can be linked with changes in the mean transport of key water masses. The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation weakens in most models and is directly linked to changes in bottom density in the North Atlantic. These changes are the result of the intrusion of modified Antarctic Bottom Water, made possible by the decrease i...},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2018-09-24},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Heuzé, Céline and Heywood, Karen J. and Stevens, David P. and Ridley, Jeff K.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {2917--2944}
}

@article{klymak_simple_2010,
	title = {A simple mixing scheme for models that resolve breaking internal waves},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {14635003},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1463500310000144},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2010.02.005},
	number = {3-4},
	urldate = {2018-09-21},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Klymak, Jody M. and Legg, Sonya M.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {224--234}
}

@article{staquet_mixing_2000,
	title = {Mixing in a stably stratified shear layer: two- and three-dimensional numerical experiments},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0169-5983},
	url = {http://stacks.iop.org/1873-7005/27/i=6/a=A02?key=crossref.7e1be5384b6241d7f7027c49a87e4ad7},
	doi = {10.1016/S0169-5983(00)00020-4},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2018-09-21},
	journal = {Fluid Dynamics Research},
	author = {Staquet, C},
	month = dec,
	year = {2000},
	note = {Publisher: IOP Publishing},
	pages = {367--404}
}

@article{thompson_carbon_1982,
	title = {Carbon dioxide and climate: the importance of realistic geography in estimating the transient temperature response.},
	volume = {217},
	url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17839339},
	doi = {10.1126/science.217.4564.1031},
	abstract = {Results obtained from a detailed air-sea-ice climate model for an instantaneous increase in the atmospheric carbon dioxide content are used to estimate the transient surface temperature response for several time-dependent carbon dioxide increase scenarios. The inclusion of realistic variations of land fraction and ocean mixing with latitude is found to limit the applicability of steady- state simulations as approximate guides to the actual time-dependent temperature response, particularly when the regional response is considered.},
	number = {4564},
	urldate = {2018-09-20},
	journal = {Science (New York, N.Y.)},
	author = {Thompson, S L and Schneider, S H and Lacis, A. and Fung, I. and Rind, D. and Stone, P.},
	month = sep,
	year = {1982},
	pmid = {17839339},
	note = {Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	pages = {1031--3}
}

@article{levitus_world_2012,
	title = {World ocean heat content and thermosteric sea level change (0-2000 m), 1955-2010},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2012GL051106},
	doi = {10.1029/2012GL051106},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2018-09-20},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Levitus, S. and Antonov, J. I. and Boyer, T. P. and Baranova, O. K. and Garcia, H. E. and Locarnini, R. A. and Mishonov, A. V. and Reagan, J. R. and Seidov, D. and Yarosh, E. S. and Zweng, M. M.},
	month = may,
	year = {2012},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	keywords = {climate variability, ocean heat content},
	pages = {n/a--n/a}
}

@article{manabe_effects_1975,
	title = {The {Effects} of {Doubling} the {CO2} {Concentration} on the climate of a {General} {Circulation} {Model}},
	volume = {32},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0469%281975%29032%3C0003%3ATEODTC%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032<0003:TEODTC>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract An attempt is made to estimate the temperature changes resulting from doubling the present CO2 concentration by the use of a simplified three-dimensional general circulation model. This model contains the following simplications: a limited computational domain, an idealized topography, no beat transport by ocean currents, and fixed cloudiness. Despite these limitations, the results from this computation yield some indication of how the increase of CO2 concentration may affect the distribution of temperature in the atmosphere. It is shown that the CO2 increase raises the temperature of the model troposphere, whereas it lowers that of the model stratosphere. The tropospheric warming is somewhat larger than that expected from a radiative-convective equilibrium model. In particular, the increase of surface temperature in higher latitudes is magnified due to the recession of the snow boundary and the thermal stability of the lower troposphere which limits convective beating to the lowest layer. It is ...},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-09-11},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Manabe, Syukuro and Wetherald, Richard T.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1975},
	pages = {3--15}
}

@article{loeb_observed_2012,
	title = {Observed changes in top-of-the-atmosphere radiation and upper-ocean heating consistent within uncertainty},
	volume = {5},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1375},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo1375},
	abstract = {Global climate change results from a small yet persistent imbalance between the amount of sunlight absorbed by the Earth and the thermal radiation emitted back to space. A revised analysis of measured changes in the net radiation imbalance at the top of the atmosphere, and the ocean heat content to a depth of 1,800 m, suggests that these two sets of observations are consistent within error margins.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-09-11},
	journal = {Nature Geoscience},
	author = {Loeb, Norman G. and Lyman, John M. and Johnson, Gregory C. and Allan, Richard P. and Doelling, David R. and Wong, Takmeng and Soden, Brian J. and Stephens, Graeme L.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2012},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {110--113}
}

@article{loeb_toward_2009,
	title = {Toward {Optimal} {Closure} of the {Earth}'s {Top}-of-{Atmosphere} {Radiation} {Budget}},
	volume = {22},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2008JCLI2637.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2008JCLI2637.1},
	abstract = {Abstract Despite recent improvements in satellite instrument calibration and the algorithms used to determine reflected solar (SW) and emitted thermal (LW) top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiative fluxes, a sizeable imbalance persists in the average global net radiation at the TOA from satellite observations. This imbalance is problematic in applications that use earth radiation budget (ERB) data for climate model evaluation, estimate the earth’s annual global mean energy budget, and in studies that infer meridional heat transports. This study provides a detailed error analysis of TOA fluxes based on the latest generation of Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) gridded monthly mean data products [the monthly TOA/surface averages geostationary (SRBAVG-GEO)] and uses an objective constrainment algorithm to adjust SW and LW TOA fluxes within their range of uncertainty to remove the inconsistency between average global net TOA flux and heat storage in the earth–atmosphere system. The 5-yr global mean...},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-09-11},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Loeb, Norman G. and Wielicki, Bruce A. and Doelling, David R. and Smith, G. Louis and Keyes, Dennis F. and Kato, Seiji and Manalo-Smith, Natividad and Wong, Takmeng},
	month = feb,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {748--766}
}

@article{pedlosky_baroclinic_1992,
	title = {The {Baroclinic} {Structure} of the {Abyssal} {Circulation}},
	volume = {22},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1992)022<0652:TBSOTA>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract A simple baroclinic model of the abyssal ocean circulation is formulated in which the reversals of the meridional velocity with depth, and hence the layering of the abyss, is explained by the longitudinal variation of upwelling into the main thermocline. Since the barotropic meridional velocity is connected to the local upwelling velocity by the Sverdrup relation, regions of weak upwelling have meridional velocity fields that are essentially baroclinic. The baroclinic velocities are driven by thermal anomalies that propagate westward by stationary diffusive Rossby waves from regions of vertical strong upwelling in the eastern portion of the basin. These dynamically driven, internally generated vertical velocities produce the layered baroclinic structure in the western interior of the basin. A simple linear model, continuous in the vertical, is developed to illustrate these elements of the conceptual picture.},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2018-09-11},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Pedlosky, Joseph},
	month = jun,
	year = {1992},
	pages = {652--659}
}

@article{schiff_lateral_1966,
	title = {Lateral boundary mixing in a simple model of ocean convection},
	volume = {13},
	issn = {0011-7471},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011747166905936},
	doi = {10.1016/0011-7471(66)90593-6},
	abstract = {An approximate solution of the equations of thermal convective flow is obtained for a simple ocean model that incorporates lateral boundary mixing in an extreme form. It is found that the imposition of constant temperature along these boundaries causes the temperature to be nearly constant throughout the volume even though the top and bottom are maintained at different temperatures. As a consequences of this model, there is strong horizontal flow in thin layers close to the top and bottom; the thickness of these layers in a typical case is a few meters.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-09-06},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts},
	author = {Schiff, L.I.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1966},
	note = {Publisher: Elsevier},
	pages = {621--626}
}

@article{plumb_transformed_2005,
	title = {Transformed {Eulerian}-{Mean} {Theory}. {Part} {I}: {Nonquasigeostrophic} {Theory} for {Eddies} on a {Zonal}-{Mean} {Flow}},
	volume = {35},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-2669.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-2669.1},
	abstract = {Abstract A theoretical formalism for nongeostrophic eddy transport in zonal-mean flows, using a transformed Eulerian-mean (TEM) approach in z coordinates, is discussed. By using Andrews and McIntyre’s coordinate-independent definition of the “quasi-Stokes streamfunction,” it is argued that the surface boundary condition can be dealt with more readily than when the widely used quasigeostrophic definition is adopted. Along with the “residual mean circulation,” the concept of “residual eddy flux” arises naturally within the TEM framework, and it is argued that it is this residual eddy flux, and not the “raw” eddy flux, that might reasonably be expected to be downgradient. This distinction is shown to be especially important for Ertel potential vorticity (PV). The authors show how a closed set of transformed mean equations can be generated, and how the eddy forcing appears in the TEM momentum equations. Under adiabatic conditions, the “eddy drag” is just proportional to the residual eddy flux of PV along the ...},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-09-04},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Plumb, R. Alan and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	month = feb,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {165--174}
}

@article{boccaletti_mixed_2007,
	title = {Mixed {Layer} {Instabilities} and {Restratification}},
	volume = {37},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO3101.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO3101.1},
	abstract = {Abstract The restratification of the oceanic surface mixed layer that results from lateral gradients in the surface density field is studied. The lateral gradients are shown to be unstable to ageostrophic baroclinic instabilities and slump from the horizontal to the vertical. These instabilities, which are referred to as mixed layer instabilities (MLIs), differ from instabilities in the ocean interior because of the weak surface stratification. Spatial scales are O(1–10) km, and growth time scales are on the order of a day. Linear stability analysis and fully nonlinear simulations are used to study MLIs and their impact on mixed layer restratification. The main result is that MLIs are a leading-order process in the ML heat budget acting to constantly restratify the surface ocean. Climate and regional ocean models do not resolve the scales associated with MLIs and are likely to underestimate the rate of ML restratification and consequently suffer from a bias in sea surface temperatures and ML depths. In a ...},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2018-09-04},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Boccaletti, Giulio and Ferrari, Raffaele and Fox-Kemper, Baylor},
	month = sep,
	year = {2007},
	keywords = {Heat budgets, Instability},
	pages = {2228--2250}
}

@article{callies_restratification_2018,
	title = {Restratification of {Abyssal} {Mixing} {Layers} by {Submesoscale} {Baroclinic} {Eddies}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-18-0082.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-18-0082.1},
	abstract = {AbstractFor small-scale turbulence to achieve water mass transformation and thus affect the large-scale overturning circulation, it must occur in stratified water. Observations show that abyssal turbulence is strongly enhanced in the bottom few hundred meters in regions with rough topography, and it is thought that these abyssal mixing layers are crucial for closing and shaping the overturning circulation. If it were left unopposed, however, bottom-intensified turbulence would mix away the observed mixing-layer stratification over the course of a few years. It is proposed here that the homogenizing tendency of mixing may be balanced by baroclinic restratification. It is shown that bottom-intensified mixing, if it occurs on a large-scale topographic slope such as a mid-ocean ridge flank, not only erodes stratification but also tilts isopycnals in the bottom few hundred meters. This tilting of isopycnals generates a reservoir of potential energy that can be tapped into by submesoscale baroclinic eddies. The...},
	urldate = {2018-09-04},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Callies, Jörn},
	month = jul,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {JPO--D--18--0082.1}
}

@article{wenegrat_submesoscale_2018,
	title = {Submesoscale {Baroclinic} {Instability} in the {Bottom} {Boundary} {Layer}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-17-0264.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-17-0264.1},
	abstract = {AbstractWeakly stratified layers over sloping topography can support a submesoscale baroclinic instability mode, a bottom boundary layer counterpart to surface mixed-layer instabilities. The instability results from the release of available potential energy, which can be generated due to the observed bottom intensification of turbulent mixing in the deep ocean, or the Ekman adjustment of a current on a slope. Linear stability analysis suggests that the growth rates of bottom boundary layer baroclinic instabilities can be comparable to those of the surface mixed-layer mode and are relatively insensitive to topographic slope angle, implying the instability is robust and potentially active in many areas of the global oceans. The solutions of two separate one-dimensional theories of the bottom boundary layer are both demonstrated to be linearly unstable to baroclinic instability, and results from an example non-linear simulation are shown. Implications of these findings for understanding bottom boundary layer...},
	urldate = {2018-09-04},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Wenegrat, Jacob O. and Callies, Jörn and Thomas, Leif N.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {JPO--D--17--0264.1}
}

@article{nikurashin_mechanism_2011,
	title = {A {Mechanism} for {Local} {Dissipation} of {Internal} {Tides} {Generated} at {Rough} {Topography}},
	volume = {41},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JPO4522.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JPO4522.1},
	abstract = {Abstract Fine- and micro-structure observations indicate that turbulent mixing is enhanced within O(1) km above rough topography. Enhanced mixing is associated with internal wave breaking and, in many regions of the ocean, has been linked to the breaking and dissipation of internal tides. The generation and dissipation of internal tides are explored in this study using a high-resolution two-dimensional nonhydrostatic numerical model, which explicitly resolves the instabilities leading to wave breaking, configured in an idealized domain with a realistic multiscale topography and flow characteristics. The control simulation, chosen to represent the Brazil Basin region, produces a vertical profile of energy dissipation and temporal characteristics of finescale motions that are consistent with observations. Results suggest that a significant fraction of mixing in the bottom O(1) km of the ocean is sustained by the transfer of energy from the large-scale internal tides to smaller-scale internal waves by nonlin...},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-09-04},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Nikurashin, Maxim and Legg, Sonya},
	month = feb,
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {Tides, Topographic effects, Wave breaking},
	pages = {378--395}
}

@article{subin_improved_2012,
	title = {An improved lake model for climate simulations: {Model} structure, evaluation, and sensitivity analyses in {CESM1}},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {1942-2466},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2011MS000072},
	doi = {10.1029/2011MS000072},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-06-20},
	journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
	author = {Subin, Zachary M. and Riley, William J. and Mironov, Dmitrii},
	month = feb,
	year = {2012},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	keywords = {climate modeling, lake modeling},
	pages = {M02001}
}

@article{hostetler_simulation_1990,
	title = {Simulation of lake evaporation with application to modeling lake level variations of {Harney}-{Malheur} {Lake}, {Oregon}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {00431397},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/WR026i010p02603},
	doi = {10.1029/WR026i010p02603},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2018-06-20},
	journal = {Water Resources Research},
	author = {Hostetler, S. W. and Bartlein, P. J.},
	month = oct,
	year = {1990},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	pages = {2603--2612}
}

@book{lerman_physics_1995,
	title = {Physics and chemistry of lakes},
	isbn = {978-3-642-85134-6},
	abstract = {Second edition. Revised edition of: Lakes--chemistry, geology, physics, c1978. Global distribution of lakes / M. Meybeck -- Hydrological processes and the water budget of lakes / T.C. Winter -- Hydrological and thermal response of lakes to climate : description and modeling / S.W. Hostetler -- Mixing mechanisms in lakes / D.M. Imboden and A. Wüest -- Stable isotopes of fresh and saline lakes / J.R. Gat -- Exchange of chemicals between the atmosphere and lakes / P. Vlahos [and others] -- Atsmopheric depositions : impact of acids on lakes / W. Stumm and J. Schnoor -- Redox-driven cycling of trace elements in lakes / J. Hamilton-Taylor and W. Davison -- Comparative geochemistry of marine saline lakes / F.T. Mackenzie [and others] -- Organic matter accumulation records in lake sediments / P.A. Meyers and R. Ishiwatari.},
	urldate = {2018-06-20},
	author = {Lerman, Abraham and Imboden, Dieter M. and Gat, Joel and Chou, Lei},
	year = {1995}
}

@article{hill_lake-catchment_2018,
	title = {The {Lake}-{Catchment} ({LakeCat}) {Dataset}: characterizing landscape features for lake basins within the conterminous {USA}},
	volume = {37},
	issn = {2161-9549},
	url = {http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/697966},
	doi = {10.1086/697966},
	abstract = {AbstractNatural and human-related landscape features influence the ecology and water quality of lakes. Summarizing these features in a hydrologically meaningful way is critical to understanding and managing lake ecosystems. Such summaries are often done by delineating watershed boundaries of individual lakes. However, many technical challenges are associated with delineating hundreds or thousands of lake watersheds at broad spatial extents. These challenges can limit the application of analyses and models to new, unsampled locations. We present the Lake-Catchment (LakeCat) Dataset (https://www.epa.gov/national-aquatic-resource-surveys/lakecat) of watershed features for 378,088 lakes within the conterminous USA. We describe the methods we used to: 1) delineate lake catchments, 2) hydrologically connect nested lake catchments, and 3) generate several hundred watershed-level metrics that summarize both natural (e.g., soils, geology, climate, and land cover) and anthropogenic (e.g., urbanization, agriculture,...},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-06-19},
	journal = {Freshwater Science},
	author = {Hill, Ryan A. and Weber, Marc H. and Debbout, Rick M. and Leibowitz, Scott G. and Olsen, Anthony R.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2018},
	note = {Publisher: University of Chicago PressChicago, IL},
	keywords = {National Hydrography Dataset (NHD), National Lakes Assessment (NLA), StreamCat Dataset, chlorophyll a, eutrophication, lakes, landscape descriptors, macrosystems ecology, watersheds},
	pages = {208--221}
}

@article{mason_response_1994,
	title = {The response of lake levels and areas to climatic change},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0165-0009},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF01093590},
	doi = {10.1007/BF01093590},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-06-19},
	journal = {Climatic Change},
	author = {Mason, I. M. and Guzkowska, M. A. J. and Rapley, C. G. and Street-Perrott, F. A.},
	month = jun,
	year = {1994},
	note = {Publisher: Kluwer Academic Publishers},
	pages = {161--197}
}

@article{verpoorter_global_2014,
	title = {A global inventory of lakes based on high-resolution satellite imagery},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2014GL060641},
	doi = {10.1002/2014GL060641},
	number = {18},
	urldate = {2018-06-19},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Verpoorter, Charles and Kutser, Tiit and Seekell, David A. and Tranvik, Lars J.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {6396--6402}
}

@article{cael_volume_2017,
	title = {The volume and mean depth of {Earth}'s lakes},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2016GL071378},
	doi = {10.1002/2016GL071378},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-06-19},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Cael, B. B. and Heathcote, A. J. and Seekell, D. A.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell},
	keywords = {limnology, mean depth, scaling, topograhy, volume},
	pages = {209--218}
}

@incollection{veronis_role_1975,
	address = {Washington, D.C.},
	title = {The role of models in tracer studies},
	booktitle = {Numerical {Models} of {Ocean} {Circulation}},
	publisher = {National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Veronis, George},
	year = {1975},
	pages = {133--146}
}

@article{benthuysen_friction_2012,
	title = {Friction and {Diapycnal} {Mixing} at a {Slope}: {Boundary} {Control} of {Potential} {Vorticity}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-11-0130.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-11-0130.1},
	abstract = {AbstractAlthough atmospheric forcing by wind stress or buoyancy flux is known to change the ocean’s potential vorticity (PV) at the surface, less is understood about PV modification in the bottom boundary layer. The adjustment of a geostrophic current over a sloped bottom in a stratified ocean generates PV sources and sinks through friction and diapycnal mixing. The time-dependent problem is solved analytically for a no-slip boundary condition, and scalings are identified for the change in PV that arises during the adjustment to steady state. Numerical experiments are run to test the scalings with different turbulent closure schemes. The key parameters that control whether PV is injected into or extracted from the fluid are the direction of the geostrophic current and the ratio of its initial speed to its steady-state speed. When the current is in the direction of Kelvin wave propagation, downslope Ekman flow advects lighter water under denser water, driving diabatic mixing and extracting PV. For a curren...},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2018-05-11},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Benthuysen, Jessica and Thomas, Leif N. and Benthuysen, Jessica and Thomas, Leif N.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {Abyssal circulation, Friction, Mixing, Potential vorticity, Topographic effects},
	pages = {1509--1523}
}

@article{gouretski_woce_2004,
	title = {{WOCE} global hydrographic climatology},
	volume = {35},
	journal = {Berichte des BSH},
	author = {Gouretski, Viktor and Koltermann, Klaus Peter},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {1--52}
}

@article{holmes_ridges_2018,
	title = {Ridges, {Seamounts}, {Troughs}, and {Bowls}: {Topographic} {Control} of the {Dianeutral} {Circulation} in the {Abyssal} {Ocean}},
	volume = {48},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-17-0141.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-17-0141.1},
	abstract = {AbstractIn situ observations obtained over the last several decades have shown that the intensity of turbulent mixing in the abyssal ocean is enhanced toward the seafloor. Consequently, a new paradigm has emerged whereby dianeutral downwelling dominates in the ocean interior and dianeutral upwelling only occurs within thin bottom boundary layers. This study shows that when mixing is bottom intensified the net abyssal dianeutral transports and the stratification can depend on subtle features of the seafloor geometry. Under an assumption of depth-independent net dianeutral upwelling, small changes in the curvature of the seafloor can result in interior stratification that is bottom intensified, uniform, or surface intensified. Further, when the net dianeutral transport is allowed to vary in the vertical, changes in the seafloor slope and bathymetric contour length with height can drive lateral exchange between the boundary layer and interior, with particularly strong lateral outflows predicted at the crests...},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-05-09},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Holmes, Ryan M. and de Lavergne, Casimir and McDougall, Trevor J.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2018},
	keywords = {Abyssal circulation, Boundary layer, Diapycnal mixing, Mass fluxes/transport, Meridional overturning circulation, Topographic effects},
	pages = {861--882}
}

@misc{noauthor_mcdougall1989_dianeutral_advection.pdf_nodate,
	title = {{McDougall1989}\_dianeutral\_advection.pdf}
}

@article{doos_deacon_1994,
	title = {The {Deacon} {Cell} and the {Other} {Meridional} {Cells} of the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	volume = {24},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281994%29024%3C0429%3ATDCATO%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1994)024<0429:TDCATO>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract The meridional circulation cells of the Southern Ocean are investigated using the results from a fine-resolution primitive equation model. Zonal integration along depth levels shows the classical series of meridional cells but integration along density layers shows a number of differences, including the virtual disappearance of the Deacon cell. To investigate the differences, the meridional transport is calculated as a function of both density and depth. The results show that the Deacon cell is associated with systematic changes in the depth of density surfaces between the western boundary current region off South America and the return flow in the interior of the ocean. Water flowing on each density surface produces a meridional cell with a vertical excursion of a few hundred meters. Thew cells combine, without water crossing density surfaces, to produce a single integrated Deacon cell extending from the surface to below 2000 m. The results also show that, at each latitude, water on each of the ...},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-05-08},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Döös, Kristofer and Webb, David J.},
	month = feb,
	year = {1994},
	pages = {429--442}
}

@article{salmon_simplified_1986,
	title = {A simplified linear ocean circulation theory},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {00222402},
	url = {http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/xref?genre=article&issn=0022-2402&volume=44&issue=4&spage=695},
	doi = {10.1357/002224086788401602},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	author = {Salmon, Rick},
	month = nov,
	year = {1986},
	pages = {695--711}
}

@article{salmon_linear_1998,
	title = {Linear ocean circulation theory with realistic bathymetry},
	volume = {56},
	issn = {15439542},
	url = {http://www.ingentaselect.com/rpsv/cgi-bin/cgi?ini=xref&body=linker&reqdoi=10.1357/002224098321667396},
	doi = {10.1357/002224098321667396},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	author = {Salmon, Rick},
	month = jul,
	year = {1998},
	pages = {833--884}
}

@article{welander_advective_1959,
	title = {An {Advective} {Model} of the {Ocean} {Thermocline}},
	volume = {11},
	url = {http://tellusa.net/index.php/tellusa/article/view/9316},
	doi = {10.1111/j.2153-3490.1959.tb00036.x},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	journal = {Tellus},
	author = {Welander, Pierre},
	month = aug,
	year = {1959},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley/Blackwell (10.1111)},
	pages = {309--318}
}

@article{robinson_oceanic_1959,
	title = {The {Oceanic} {Thermocline} and the {Associated} {Thermohaline} {Circulation}},
	volume = {11},
	url = {http://tellusa.net/index.php/tellusa/article/view/9317},
	doi = {10.1111/j.2153-3490.1959.tb00035.x},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	journal = {Tellus},
	author = {Robinson, Allan and Stommel, Henry},
	month = aug,
	year = {1959},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley/Blackwell (10.1111)},
	pages = {295--308}
}

@book{pedlosky_ocean_1996,
	address = {Berlin, Heidelberg},
	title = {Ocean {Circulation} {Theory}},
	isbn = {978-3-642-08224-5},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-03204-6},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg},
	author = {Pedlosky, Joseph},
	year = {1996},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-662-03204-6}
}

@article{thorpe_current_1987,
	title = {Current and {Temperature} {Variability} on the {Continental} {Slope}},
	volume = {323},
	issn = {1364-503X},
	url = {http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/cgi/doi/10.1098/rsta.1987.0100},
	doi = {10.1098/rsta.1987.0100},
	abstract = {Observations of temperature and currents have been made in the lower part of the water column on the western slope of the Porcupine Bank southwest of Ireland where the water depth is about 3500 m. Moored and lowered instruments were used to study the processes that may lead to mixing and diapycnal transfer. A poleward Eulerian mean flow of about 2.5 cm s-1 is found in the bottom 250 m, with current direction rotating anticlockwise as the bottom is approached. The shear between 30 and 90 m off the bottom is, on average, geostrophic and the temperature variation at a point averaged over several tidal cycles is dominated by along-slope advection. There is, however, considerable variability, with strong semidiurnal oscillations in both current and temperature. There is a downward phase propagation in temperature at these frequencies indicating the presence of baroclinic M 2 waves. It is possible that these are responsible for the apparent along and off-slope fluxes of heat that are observed. Fluctuations with periods of 5-6 days appear to propagate polewards along slope with phase speeds of about 13 cm s-1, but have constant phase lines lying roughly north-south at an acute angle to the mean contours of the slope. Profiles of potential temperature obtained by using a lowered conductivity, temperature and depth (ctd) instrument show the presence of frequent inversions in the lower 150 m, sometimes exceeding 30 m in height. A moored array of platinum resistance thermometers sampling at 10 s intervals indicates that the inversions are associated with the semidiurnal variability in temperature, the most frequent inversions occurring when the temperature 10 m off the bottom is greatest and when the temperature is falling at higher levels with a component of the current directed upslope. Indirect estimates of the vertical diffusivity and turbulent dissipation are derived from the observed scales of inversions and the overall stratification. These are subject to considerable uncertainty but suggest that the contribution to turbulence in the boundary layer from the inversions may exceed that supplied by the shear stress on the sea bed. Sources in instability are discussed, and one is examined analytically. An exact steady or time-dependent solution of flow of a stratified fluid parallel to a sloping boundary is derived. Solutions in which the density remains statically stable are possible only when a rather delicate balance exists between flow, stratification and diffusion.},
	number = {1574},
	urldate = {2018-05-07},
	journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences},
	author = {Thorpe, S. A.},
	month = oct,
	year = {1987},
	note = {Publisher: The Royal Society},
	pages = {471--517}
}

@article{Whitehead1974,
	title = {Rotating hydraulics of strait and sill flows†},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {0016-7991},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03091927409365790},
	doi = {10.1080/03091927409365790},
	abstract = {Theoretical and laboratory models of certain types of strait and sill flows are discussed. Specifically, we consider a two‐layer rotating fluid; the upper layer is at rest and the lower layer flows from one large basin to another via a connecting channel. The flow is assumed to be principally in a down‐channel direction. The cross‐channel balance is therefore geostrophic and the Bernoulli and potential vorticity equations are simplified. We further invoke the usual non‐rotating hydraulic principle of maximum transport in flow over a weir—here the end of the channel—and thereby calculate relations between transport, rotation rate, and upstream interface height. One of these relations is tested experimentally with favorable results. A nonsteady decaying flow in the same system is analyzed similarly and also compares well with experiment, as does a flow in both layers driven by an initial density imbalance. Some connections with oceanic strait and sill flows are discussed.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2017-12-15},
	journal = {Geophysical Fluid Dynamics},
	author = {Whitehead, J. A. and Leetmaa, A. and Knox, R.A.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1974},
	note = {Publisher:  Taylor \& Francis Group },
	pages = {101--125}
}

@book{Pratt2007,
	address = {New York, NY},
	title = {Rotating {Hydraulics}},
	volume = {36},
	isbn = {978-0-387-36639-5},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-0-387-49572-9},
	urldate = {2017-12-15},
	publisher = {Springer New York},
	author = {Pratt, Larry J. and Whitehead, John A.},
	year = {2007},
	doi = {10.1007/978-0-387-49572-9},
	note = {Series Title: Atmospheric And Oceanographic Sciences Library}
}

@article{Tamsitt2017,
	title = {Spiraling pathways of global deep waters to the surface of the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-00197-0},
	doi = {10.1038/s41467-017-00197-0},
	abstract = {Upwelling of global deep waters to the sea surface in the Southern Ocean closes the global overturning circulation and is fundamentally important for oceanic uptake of carbon and heat, nutrient resupply for sustaining oceanic biological production, and the melt rate of ice shelves. However, the exact pathways and role of topography in Southern Ocean upwelling remain largely unknown. Here we show detailed upwelling pathways in three dimensions, using hydrographic observations and particle tracking in high-resolution models. The analysis reveals that the northern-sourced deep waters enter the Antarctic Circumpolar Current via southward flow along the boundaries of the three ocean basins, before spiraling southeastward and upward through the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Upwelling is greatly enhanced at five major topographic features, associated with vigorous mesoscale eddy activity. Deep water reaches the upper ocean predominantly south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, with a spatially nonuniform distribution. The timescale for half of the deep water to upwell from 30° S to the mixed layer is {\textasciitilde}60–90 years.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Nature Communications},
	author = {Tamsitt, Veronica and Drake, Henri F and Morrison, Adele K and Talley, Lynne D and Dufour, Carolina O and Gray, Alison R and Griffies, Stephen M and Mazloff, Matthew R and Sarmiento, Jorge L and Wang, Jinbo and Weijer, Wilbert},
	year = {2017},
	pages = {172}
}

@article{sarmiento_high-latitude_2004,
	title = {High-latitude controls of thermocline nutrients and low latitude biological productivity},
	volume = {427},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v427/n6969/full/nature02127.html},
	doi = {10.1038/nature02127},
	number = {6969},
	urldate = {2017-08-01},
	journal = {Nature, Published online: 01 January 2004; {\textbar} doi:10.1038/nature02127},
	author = {Sarmiento, J. L. and Gruber, N. and Brzezinski, M. A. and Dunne, J. P.},
	year = {2004},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {56}
}

@book{Prandtl1945,
	address = {Göttingen},
	title = {Über ein neues {Formelsystem} für die ausgebildete {Turbulenz}},
	url = {http://www.worldcat.org/title/uber-ein-neues-formelsystem-fur-die-ausgebildete-turbulenz/oclc/315537024},
	urldate = {2017-05-20},
	publisher = {Vandenhoeck \& Ruprecht},
	author = {Prandtl, Ludwig},
	year = {1945}
}

@incollection{Tollmien1961,
	address = {Berlin, Heidelberg},
	title = {Über ein neues {Formelsystem} für die ausgebildete {Turbulenz}},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-11836-8_72},
	urldate = {2017-05-20},
	booktitle = {Ludwig {Prandtl} {Gesammelte} {Abhandlungen}},
	publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg},
	author = {Tollmien, Walter and Schlichting, Hermann and Görtler, Henry and Riegels, F. W.},
	year = {1961},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-662-11836-8_72},
	pages = {874--887}
}

@article{Benjamin1968,
	title = {Gravity currents and related phenomena},
	volume = {31},
	issn = {0022-1120},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112068000133},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112068000133},
	number = {02},
	urldate = {2017-05-20},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Benjamin, T. Brooke},
	month = jan,
	year = {1968},
	note = {Publisher: Cambridge University Press},
	pages = {209}
}

@article{Yih1955,
	title = {Hydraulic {Jump} in a {Fluid} {System} of {Two} {Layers}},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {00402826},
	url = {http://tellusa.net/index.php/tellusa/article/view/8874},
	doi = {10.1111/j.2153-3490.1955.tb01172.x},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2017-05-20},
	journal = {Tellus},
	author = {Yih, Chia-Shun and Guha, C. R.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1955},
	note = {Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Ltd},
	pages = {358--366}
}

@article{Jacobson2008,
	title = {Mixing {Closures} for {Conservation} {Laws} in {Stratified} {Flows}},
	volume = {121},
	issn = {00222526},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1467-9590.2008.00403.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1467-9590.2008.00403.x},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2017-05-20},
	journal = {Studies in Applied Mathematics},
	author = {Jacobson, Tivon and Milewski, Paul A. and Tabak, Esteban G.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2008},
	note = {Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Inc},
	pages = {89--116}
}

@article{HOLLAND2002,
	title = {Internal hydraulic jumps and mixing in two-layer flows},
	volume = {470},
	issn = {0022-1120},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S002211200200188X},
	doi = {10.1017/S002211200200188X},
	urldate = {2017-05-20},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {HOLLAND, DAVID M. and ROSALES, RODOLFO R. and STEFANICA, DAN and TABAK, ESTEBAN G.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2002}
}

@article{KLEMP1997,
	title = {On the propagation of internal bores},
	volume = {331},
	issn = {00221120},
	url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022112096003710},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112096003710},
	urldate = {2017-05-20},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {KLEMP, JOSEPH B. and ROTUNNO, RICHARD and SKAMAROCK, WILLIAM C.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1997},
	note = {Publisher: Cambridge University Press},
	pages = {S0022112096003710}
}

@article{Houghton1968,
	title = {Nonlinear shallow fluid flow over an isolated ridge},
	volume = {21},
	issn = {00103640},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/cpa.3160210103},
	doi = {10.1002/cpa.3160210103},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2017-05-20},
	journal = {Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics},
	author = {Houghton, David D. and Kasahara, Akira},
	month = jan,
	year = {1968},
	note = {Publisher: Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company},
	pages = {1--23}
}

@article{Kageyama2001,
	title = {The {Last} {Glacial} {Maximum} climate over {Europe} and western {Siberia}: a {PMIP} comparison between models and data},
	volume = {17},
	issn = {0930-7575},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s003820000095},
	doi = {10.1007/s003820000095},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Kageyama, M. and Peyron, O. and Pinot, S. and Tarasov, P. and Guiot, J. and Joussaume, S. and Ramstein, G.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2001},
	note = {Publisher: Springer-Verlag},
	pages = {23--43}
}

@article{Pinot1999,
	title = {Tropical paleoclimates at the {Last} {Glacial} {Maximum}: comparison of {Paleoclimate} {Modeling} {Intercomparison} {Project} ({PMIP}) simulations and paleodata},
	volume = {15},
	issn = {0930-7575},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s003820050318},
	doi = {10.1007/s003820050318},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Pinot, S. and Ramstein, G. and Harrison, S. P. and Prentice, I. C. and Guiot, J. and Stute, M. and Joussaume, S.},
	month = nov,
	year = {1999},
	note = {Publisher: Springer-Verlag},
	pages = {857--874}
}

@article{Berger1999,
	title = {Modelling northern hemisphere ice volume over the last {3Ma}},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {02773791},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S027737919800033X},
	doi = {10.1016/S0277-3791(98)00033-X},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Quaternary Science Reviews},
	author = {Berger, A. and Li, X.S. and Loutre, M.F.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1999},
	pages = {1--11}
}

@book{Sarmiento2006,
	title = {Ocean biogeochemical dynamics},
	isbn = {978-1-4008-4907-9},
	abstract = {Ocean Biogeochemical Dynamics provides a broad theoretical framework upon which graduate students and upper-level undergraduates can formulate an understanding of the processes that control the mean concentration and distribution of biologically utilized elements and compounds in the ocean. Though it is written as a textbook, it will also be of interest to more advanced scientists as a wide-ranging synthesis of our present understanding of ocean biogeochemical processes. The first two chapters of the book provide an introductory overview of biogeochemical and physical oceanography. The next four chapters concentrate on processes at the air-sea interface, the production of organic matter in the upper ocean, the remineralization of organic matter in the water column, and the processing of organic matter in the sediments. The focus of these chapters is on analyzing the cycles of organic carbon, oxygen, and nutrients. The next three chapters round out the authors' coverage of ocean biogeochemical cycles with discussions of silica, dissolved inorganic carbon and alkalinity, and CaCO₃. The final chapter discusses applications of ocean biogeochemistry to our understanding of the role of the ocean carbon cycle in interannual to decadal variability, paleoclimatology, and the anthropogenic carbon budget. The problem sets included at the end of each chapter encourage students to ask critical questions in this exciting new field. While much of the approach is mathematical, the math is at a level that should be accessible to students with a year or two of college level mathematics and/or physics. Introduction -- Tracer conservation and ocean transport -- Air-sea interface -- Organic matter production -- Organic matter export and remineralization -- Remineralization and burial in the sediments -- Silicate cycle -- Carbon cycle -- Calcium carbonate cycle -- Carbon cycle, CO₂, and climate.},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	publisher = {Princeton University Press},
	author = {Sarmiento, Jorge Louis and Gruber, Nicolas},
	year = {2006}
}

@article{Stephens2000,
	title = {The influence of {Antarctic} sea ice on glacial–interglacial {CO2} variations},
	volume = {404},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10724166},
	doi = {10.1038/35004556},
	abstract = {Ice-core measurements indicate that atmospheric CO2 concentrations during glacial periods were consistently about 80 parts per million lower than during interglacial periods. Previous explanations for this observation have typically had difficulty accounting for either the estimated glacial O2 concentrations in the deep sea, 13C/12C ratios in Antarctic surface waters, or the depth of calcite saturation; also lacking is an explanation for the strong link between atmospheric CO2 and Antarctic air temperature. There is growing evidence that the amount of deep water upwelling at low latitudes is significantly overestimated in most ocean general circulation models and simpler box models previously used to investigate this problem. Here we use a box model with deep-water upwelling confined to south of 55 degrees S to investigate the glacial-interglacial linkages between Antarctic air temperature and atmospheric CO2 variations. We suggest that low glacial atmospheric CO2 levels might result from reduced deep-water ventilation associated with either year-round Antarctic sea-ice coverage, or wintertime coverage combined with ice-induced stratification during the summer. The model presented here reproduces 67 parts per million of the observed glacial-interglacial CO2 difference, as a result of reduced air-sea gas exchange in the Antarctic region, and is generally consistent with the additional observational constraints.},
	number = {6774},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Stephens, Britton B. and Keeling, Ralph F.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2000},
	pmid = {10724166},
	pages = {171--174}
}

@article{DeBoer2007,
	title = {Effect of global ocean temperature change on deep ocean ventilation},
	volume = {22},
	issn = {08838305},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2005PA001242},
	doi = {10.1029/2005PA001242},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Paleoceanography},
	author = {de Boer, A. M. and Sigman, D. M. and Toggweiler, J. R. and Russell, J. L.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2007},
	keywords = {ocean ventilation, paleoclimate}
}

@article{Toggweiler1999,
	title = {Variation of atmospheric {CO} $_{\textrm{2}}$ by ventilation of the ocean's deepest water},
	volume = {14},
	issn = {08838305},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/1999PA900033},
	doi = {10.1029/1999PA900033},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Paleoceanography},
	author = {Toggweiler, J. R.},
	month = oct,
	year = {1999},
	pages = {571--588}
}

@article{Sigman2000,
	title = {Glacial/interglacial variations in atmospheric carbon dioxide},
	volume = {407},
	issn = {00280836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/35038000},
	doi = {10.1038/35038000},
	number = {6806},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Sigman, Daniel M. and Boyle, Edward A.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2000},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {859--869}
}

@article{Broecker1982,
	title = {Glacial to interglacial changes in ocean chemistry},
	volume = {11},
	issn = {00796611},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0079661182900076},
	doi = {10.1016/0079-6611(82)90007-6},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Progress in Oceanography},
	author = {Broecker, Wallace S.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1982},
	pages = {151--197}
}

@article{Saltzman1984,
	title = {A {Model} of the {Internal} {Feedback} {System} {Involved} in {Late} {Quaternary} {Climatic} {Variations}},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {0022-4928},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0469%281984%29041%3C0736%3AAMOTIF%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<0736:AMOTIF>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract Because of the small net rates of energy flow involved in very long-term changes in ice mass (10−1 W m−2) it will be impossible to proceed in a purely deductive manner to develop a theory for these changes. An inductive approach will be necessary-perhaps beg formulated in terms of multi-component stochastic-dynamical systems of equations governing the variables and feedbacks thought to be relevant from qualitative physical reasoning (e.g., “conceptual models”). The output of such models should be required to conform as closely as possible to all lines of observational evidence on climatic change, have a predictive quality in the search for new observational evidence, and satisfy the general conservation laws and all the results of physical measurement of the fast response (high energy flux) processes that generally lead to diagnostic relationships. A prototype of such an inductive model is described. This model is formulated as a nonlinear dynamical system governing three components: continental ...},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Saltzman, Barry and Sutera, Alfonso and Saltzman, Barry and Sutera, Alfonso},
	month = mar,
	year = {1984},
	pages = {736--745}
}

@article{Tziperman2003,
	title = {On the mid-{Pleistocene} transition to 100-kyr glacial cycles and the asymmetry between glaciation and deglaciation times},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {08838305},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2001pa000627},
	doi = {10.1029/2001pa000627},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Paleoceanography},
	author = {Tziperman, Eli and Gildor, Hezi},
	month = mar,
	year = {2003},
	keywords = {100 kyr, 41 kyr, climate dynamics, glacial cycles, mid‐Pleistocene transition},
	pages = {1--1--1--8}
}

@article{Anderson2009,
	title = {Wind-{Driven} {Upwelling} in the {Southern} {Ocean} and the {Deglacial} {Rise} in {Atmospheric} {CO2}},
	volume = {323},
	url = {http://science.sciencemag.org/content/323/5920/1443?ijkey=262db711cb29c552cb1e354f5396f08e765e5a1e&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha},
	number = {5920},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Anderson, R. F. and Ali, S. and Bradtmiller, L. I. and Nielsen, S. H. H. and Fleisher, M. Q. and Anderson, B. E. and Burckle, L. H.},
	year = {2009}
}

@article{Ashkenazy2003,
	title = {Nonlinearity and multifractality of climate change in the past 420,000 years},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2003GL018099},
	doi = {10.1029/2003GL018099},
	number = {22},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Ashkenazy, Yosef and Baker, Don R. and Gildor, Hezi and Havlin, Shlomo},
	month = nov,
	year = {2003}
}

@article{Paillard2001,
	title = {Glacial cycles: {Toward} a new paradigm},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {87551209},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2000RG000091},
	doi = {10.1029/2000RG000091},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
	author = {Paillard, Didier},
	month = aug,
	year = {2001},
	pages = {325--346}
}

@article{Huybers2008,
	title = {Integrated summer insolation forcing and 40,000-year glacial cycles: {The} perspective from an ice-sheet/energy-balance model},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {08838305},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2007PA001463},
	doi = {10.1029/2007PA001463},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Paleoceanography},
	author = {Huybers, Peter and Tziperman, Eli},
	month = mar,
	year = {2008},
	keywords = {early Pleistocene, glaciation, obliquity},
	pages = {n/a--n/a}
}

@article{Huybers2006,
	title = {Early {Pleistocene} {Glacial} {Cycles} and the {Integrated} {Summer} {Insolation} {Forcing}},
	volume = {313},
	url = {http://science.sciencemag.org/content/313/5786/508},
	number = {5786},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Huybers, Peter},
	year = {2006}
}

@article{Sigman2010,
	title = {The polar ocean and glacial cycles in atmospheric {CO2} concentration},
	volume = {466},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature09149},
	doi = {10.1038/nature09149},
	number = {7302},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Sigman, Daniel M. and Hain, Mathis P. and Haug, Gerald H.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {47--55}
}

@article{Luthi2008,
	title = {High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000–800,000 years before present},
	volume = {453},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature06949},
	doi = {10.1038/nature06949},
	number = {7193},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Lüthi, Dieter and Le Floch, Martine and Bereiter, Bernhard and Blunier, Thomas and Barnola, Jean-Marc and Siegenthaler, Urs and Raynaud, Dominique and Jouzel, Jean and Fischer, Hubertus and Kawamura, Kenji and Stocker, Thomas F.},
	month = may,
	year = {2008},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {379--382}
}

@article{Jouzel2007,
	title = {Orbital and {Millennial} {Antarctic} {Climate} {Variability} over the {Past} 800,000 {Years}},
	volume = {317},
	url = {http://science.sciencemag.org/content/317/5839/793},
	number = {5839},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Jouzel, J. and Masson-Delmotte, V. and Cattani, O. and Dreyfus, G. and Falourd, S. and Hoffmann, G. and Minster, B. and Nouet, J. and Barnola, J. M. and Chappellaz, J. and Fischer, H. and Gallet, J. C. and Johnsen, S. and Leuenberger, M. and Loulergue, L. and Luethi, D. and Oerter, H. and Parrenin, F. and Raisbeck, G. and Raynaud, D. and Schilt, A. and Schwander, J. and Selmo, E. and Souchez, R. and Spahni, R. and Stauffer, B. and Steffensen, J. P. and Stenni, B. and Stocker, T. F. and Tison, J. L. and Werner, M. and Wolff, E. W.},
	year = {2007}
}

@article{Gildor2000,
	title = {Sea ice as the glacial cycles’ {Climate} switch: role of seasonal and orbital forcing},
	volume = {15},
	issn = {08838305},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/1999PA000461},
	doi = {10.1029/1999PA000461},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Paleoceanography},
	author = {Gildor, Hezi and Tziperman, Eli},
	month = dec,
	year = {2000},
	pages = {605--615}
}

@article{Gildor2001,
	title = {Physical mechanisms behind biogeochemical glacial-interglacial \textit{{CO}} $_{\textrm{2}}$ variations},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2000GL012571},
	doi = {10.1029/2000GL012571},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Gildor, Hezi and Tziperman, Eli},
	month = jun,
	year = {2001},
	pages = {2421--2424}
}

@article{Peltier1995,
	title = {Coupled energy-balance/ice-sheet model simulations of the glacial cycle: {A} possible connection between terminations and terrigenous dust},
	volume = {100},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/95JD00015},
	doi = {10.1029/95JD00015},
	number = {D7},
	urldate = {2017-05-12},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Peltier, W. Richard and Marshall, Shawn},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {14269}
}

@article{Maier-Reimer1993,
	title = {Geochemical cycles in an ocean general circulation model. {Preindustrial} tracer distributions},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {08866236},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/93GB01355},
	doi = {10.1029/93GB01355},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2017-05-11},
	journal = {Global Biogeochemical Cycles},
	author = {Maier-Reimer, Ernst},
	month = sep,
	year = {1993},
	pages = {645--677}
}

@article{Ghil1981,
	title = {A climate model with cryodynamics and geodynamics},
	volume = {86},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC086iC06p05262},
	doi = {10.1029/JC086iC06p05262},
	number = {C6},
	urldate = {2017-05-11},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Ghil, Michael and Le Treut, Hervé},
	year = {1981},
	pages = {5262}
}

@article{Ghil1994,
	title = {Cryothermodynamics: the chaotic dynamics of paleoclimate},
	volume = {77},
	issn = {01672789},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0167278994901317},
	doi = {10.1016/0167-2789(94)90131-7},
	number = {1-3},
	urldate = {2017-05-11},
	journal = {Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena},
	author = {Ghil, Michael},
	month = oct,
	year = {1994},
	pages = {130--159}
}

@article{Gersonde2005,
	title = {Sea-surface temperature and sea ice distribution of the {Southern} {Ocean} at the {EPILOG} {Last} {Glacial} {Maximum}—a circum-{Antarctic} view based on siliceous microfossil records},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {02773791},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379104002227},
	doi = {10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.07.015},
	abstract = {Based on the quantitative study of diatoms and radiolarians, summer sea-surface temperature (SSST) and sea ice distribution were estimated from 122 sediment core localities in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific sectors of the Southern Ocean to reconstruct the last glacial environment at the EPILOG (19.5–16.0ka or 23000–19000cal yr. B.P.) time-slice. The statistical methods applied include the Imbrie and Kipp Method, the Modern Analog Technique and the General Additive Model. Summer SSTs reveal greater surface-water cooling than reconstructed by CLIMAP (Geol. Soc. Am. Map Chart. Ser. MC-36 (1981) 1), reaching a maximum (4–5°C) in the present Subantarctic Zone of the Atlantic and Indian sector. The reconstruction of maximum winter sea ice (WSI) extent is in accordance with CLIMAP, showing an expansion of the WSI field by around 100\% compared to the present. Although only limited information is available, the data clearly show that CLIMAP strongly overestimated the glacial summer sea ice extent. As a result of the northward expansion of Antarctic cold waters by 5–10° in latitude and a relatively small displacement of the Subtropical Front, thermal gradients were steepened during the last glacial in the northern zone of the Southern Ocean. Such reconstruction may, however, be inapposite for the Pacific sector. The few data available indicate reduced cooling in the southern Pacific and give suggestion for a non-uniform cooling of the glacial Southern Ocean. This study is part of MARGO, a multiproxy approach for the reconstruction of the glacial ocean surface.},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2017-05-11},
	journal = {Quaternary Science Reviews},
	author = {Gersonde, Rainer and Crosta, Xavier and Abelmann, Andrea and Armand, Leanne},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {869--896}
}

@article{Crosta1998,
	title = {Reappraisal of {Antarctic} seasonal sea-ice at the {Last} {Glacial} {Maximum}},
	volume = {25},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/98GL02012},
	doi = {10.1029/98GL02012},
	number = {14},
	urldate = {2017-05-11},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Crosta, Xavier and Pichon, Jean-Jacques and Burckle, Lloyd H.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1998},
	pages = {2703--2706}
}

@article{Mahowald1999,
	title = {Dust sources and deposition during the last glacial maximum and current climate: {A} comparison of model results with paleodata from ice cores and marine sediments},
	volume = {104},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/1999JD900084},
	doi = {10.1029/1999JD900084},
	number = {D13},
	urldate = {2017-05-11},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Mahowald, Natalie and Kohfeld, Karen and Hansson, Margaret and Balkanski, Yves and Harrison, Sandy P. and Prentice, I. Colin and Schulz, Michael and Rodhe, Henning},
	month = jul,
	year = {1999},
	pages = {15895--15916}
}

@article{Gersonde2002,
	title = {Leg 177 {Synthesis}: {Insights} into {Southern} {Ocean} {Paleoceanography} on {Tectonic} to {Millennial} {Timescales}},
	url = {http://eprints.esc.cam.ac.uk/2470/},
	abstract = {Ocean Drilling Program Leg 177 was designed to study the evolution of the South Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean on tectonic to millennial  timescales.  Toward  this  end,  we  recovered  high-quality  sedimentary  sequences  at  seven  sites  between  41°  and  53°S,  which
constitute  the  raw  material  for  studying  the  Cenozoic  history  of  the high-latitude South Atlantic  Ocean.  Here  we  summarize the  principal findings made by shipboard scientists that have been reported in nu-
merous publications since the completion of Leg 177 and provide a historical  summary  of  the  development  of  this  sector  of  the  Southern Ocean.},
	urldate = {2017-05-11},
	author = {Gersonde, R. and Hodell, D. A. and Blum, P.},
	year = {2002},
	note = {Publisher: Ocean Drilling Program},
	keywords = {01, Climate Change and Earth, Ocean Atmosphere Systems}
}

@article{Boltwood1907,
	title = {Ultimate disintegration products of the radioactive elements; {Part} {II}, {Disintegration} products of uranium},
	volume = {s4-23},
	issn = {0002-9599},
	url = {http://www.ajsonline.org/cgi/doi/10.2475/ajs.s4-23.134.78},
	doi = {10.2475/ajs.s4-23.134.78},
	number = {134},
	urldate = {2017-05-11},
	journal = {American Journal of Science},
	author = {Boltwood, B. B.},
	month = feb,
	year = {1907},
	note = {Publisher: American Journal of Science},
	pages = {78--88}
}

@article{Lisiecki2005,
	title = {Pliocene-{Pleistocene} stack of globally distributed benthic stable oxygen isotope records, supplement to: {Lisiecki}, {Lorraine} {E}; {Raymo}, {Maureen} {E} (2005): {A} {Pliocene}-{Pleistocene} stack of 57 globally distributed benthic {d18O} records. {Paleoceanography}, 20, {PA1}},
	doi = {10.1594/PANGAEA.704257},
	abstract = {We present a 5.3-Myr stack (the ''LR04'' stack) of benthic d18O records from 57 globally distributed sites aligned by an automated graphic correlation algorithm. This is the first benthic delta18O stack composed of more than three records to extend beyond 850 ka, and we use its improved signal quality to identify 24 new marine isotope stages in the early Pliocene. We also present a new LR04 age model for the Pliocene-Pleistocene derived from tuning the delta18O stack to a simple ice model based on 21 June insolation at 65 N. Stacked sedimentation rates provide additional age model constraints to prevent overtuning. Despite a conservative tuning strategy, the LR04 benthic stack exhibits significant coherency with insolation in the obliquity band throughout the entire 5.3 Myr and in the precession band for more than half of the record. The LR04 stack contains significantly more variance in benthic delta18O than previously published stacks of the late Pleistocene as the result of higher resolution records, a better alignment technique, and a greater percentage of records from the Atlantic. Finally, the relative phases of the stack's 41- and 23-kyr components suggest that the precession component of delta18O from 2.7-1.6 Ma is primarily a deep-water temperature signal and that the phase of d18O precession response changed suddenly at 1.6 Ma.},
	urldate = {2017-05-11},
	author = {Lisiecki, Lorraine E and Raymo, Maureen E},
	month = jan,
	year = {2005}
}

@book{Talley2011,
	title = {Descriptive physical oceanography : an introduction},
	isbn = {978-0-7506-4552-2},
	abstract = {6th ed. 1. Introduction to Descriptive Physical Oceanography -- 2. Ocean Dimensions, Shapes, and Bottom Materials -- 3. Physical Properties of Seawater -- 4. Typical Distributions of Water Characteristics -- 5. Mass, Salt, and Heat Budgets and Wind Forcing -- 6. Data Analysis Concepts and Observational Methods -- 7. Dynamical Processes for Descriptive Ocean Circulation -- 8. Gravity Waves, Tides, and Coastal Oceanography -- 9. Atlantic Ocean -- 10. Pacific Ocean -- 11. Indian Ocean -- 12. Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas -- 13. Southern Ocean -- 14. Global Circulation and Water Properties.},
	urldate = {2017-02-17},
	publisher = {Academic Press},
	author = {Talley, Lynne D. and Pickard, George L. and Emery, William J. and Swift, James H. (Oceanographer)},
	year = {2011}
}

@article{purcell_life_1977,
	title = {Life at low {Reynolds} number},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {00029505},
	doi = {10.1119/1.10903},
	abstract = {Editor's note: This is a reprint (slightly edited) of a paper of the same title that appeared in the book Physics and Our World: A Symposium in Honor of Victor F. Weisskopf, published by the American Institute of Physics (1976). The personal tone of the original talk has been preserved in the paper, which was itself a slightly edited transcript of a tape. The figures reproduce transparencies used in the talk. The demonstration involved a tall rectangular transparent vessel of corn syrup, projected by an overhead projector turned on its side. Some essential hand waving could not be reproduced.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {American Journal of Physics},
	author = {Purcell, Em},
	year = {1977},
	pmid = {119},
	note = {arXiv: 1011.1669v3
ISBN: 157851875X},
	pages = {3}
}

@article{cayley_memoir_1858,
	title = {A memoir on the theory of matrices},
	volume = {148},
	issn = {0261-0523},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/108649},
	doi = {10.1098/rstl.1858.0002},
	number = {1858},
	journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London},
	author = {Cayley, Arthur},
	year = {1858},
	pages = {17--37}
}

@misc{noauthor_munk1998_abyssal_recipes_ii.pdf_nodate,
	title = {Munk1998\_Abyssal\_Recipes\_II.pdf}
}

@article{einstein_electrodynamics_1905,
	title = {On the electrodynamics of moving bodies ({Zur} {Elektrodynamik} bewegter {Körper})},
	volume = {17},
	issn = {0003-3804},
	doi = {10.1002/andp.19053221004},
	abstract = {This edition of Einstein’s On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies is based on the English translation of his original 1905 German-language paper (published as Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter K¨ orper, in Annalen der Physik. 17:891, 1905) which appeared in the book The Principle of Relativity, pub- lished in 1923 by Methuen and Company, Ltd. of London. Most of the papers in that collection are English translations from the German Das Rela- tivatsprinzip, 4th ed., published by in 1922 by Tuebner. All of these sources are now in the public domain; this document, derived from them, remains in the public domain and may be reproduced in any manner or medium without permission, restriction, attribution, or compensation. Numbered footnotes are as they appeared in the 1923 edition; editor’s notes are marked by a dagger (†) and appear in sans serif type. The 1923 English translation modified the notation used in Einstein’s 1905 paper to conform to that in use by the 1920’s; for example, c denotes the speed of light, as opposed the V used by Einstein in 1905. This edition was prepared by John Walker. The current version of this document is available in a variety of formats from the editor’s Web site},
	journal = {Annalen der Physik},
	author = {Einstein, Albert},
	year = {1905},
	pmid = {2006},
	note = {arXiv: physics/0512200
ISBN: 0435582003},
	pages = {891}
}

@article{denchev_what_2016,
	title = {What is the computational value of finite-range tunneling?},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {21603308},
	doi = {10.1103/PhysRevX.6.031015},
	abstract = {Quantum annealing (QA) has been proposed as a quantum enhanced optimization heuristic exploiting tunneling. Here, we demonstrate how finite range tunneling can provide considerable computational advantage. For a crafted problem designed to have tall and narrow energy barriers separating local minima, the D-Wave 2X quantum annealer achieves significant runtime advantages relative to Simulated Annealing (SA). For instances with 945 variables, this results in a time-to-99\%-success-probability that is \${\textbackslash}sim 10{\textasciicircum}8\$ times faster than SA running on a single processor core. We also compared physical QA with Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC), an algorithm that emulates quantum tunneling on classical processors. We observe a substantial constant overhead against physical QA: D-Wave 2X again runs up to \${\textbackslash}sim 10{\textasciicircum}8\$ times faster than an optimized implementation of QMC on a single core. We note that there exist heuristic classical algorithms that can solve most instances of Chimera structured problems in a timescale comparable to the D-Wave 2X. However, we believe that such solvers will become ineffective for the next generation of annealers currently being designed. To investigate whether finite range tunneling will also confer an advantage for problems of practical interest, we conduct numerical studies on binary optimization problems that cannot yet be represented on quantum hardware. For random instances of the number partitioning problem, we find numerically that QMC, as well as other algorithms designed to simulate QA, scale better than SA. We discuss the implications of these findings for the design of next generation quantum annealers.},
	number = {3},
	journal = {Physical Review X},
	author = {Denchev, Vasil S. and Boixo, Sergio and Isakov, Sergei V. and Ding, Nan and Babbush, Ryan and Smelyanskiy, Vadim and Martinis, John and Neven, Hartmut},
	year = {2016},
	note = {arXiv: 1512.02206},
	pages = {1--17}
}

@article{chassignet_no_nodate,
	title = {No {Title}},
	author = {Chassignet, Eric P and Cheng, Yu and Cotter, Colin J and Deleersnijder, Eric and Döös, Kristofer and Drake, Henri and Drijfhout, Sybren and Gary, Stefan F and Arnold, W and Macgilchrist, Graeme A and Marsh, Robert and Adame, Gabriela C Mayorga and Nencioli, Francesco and Paris, Claire B and Piggott, Matthew D and Jeff, A},
	keywords = {ocean circulation}
}

@article{stommel_cience_nodate,
	title = {cience of the {Seven} {Seas}},
	author = {Stommel, Henry and College, Pierson and Uniyersity, Yale}
}

@article{solberg_hansen_1957,
	title = {Hansen, sverdrup, bjerknes,},
	author = {Solberg, H},
	year = {1957},
	pages = {83--84}
}

@article{edwards_academic_2016,
	title = {Academic {Research} in the 21st {Century}: {Maintaining} {Scientific} {Integrity} in a {Climate} of {Perverse} {Incentives} and {Hypercompetition}},
	volume = {00},
	issn = {1092-8758},
	url = {http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ees.2016.0223},
	doi = {10.1089/ees.2016.0223},
	abstract = {Abstract Over the last 50 years, we argue that incentives for academic scientists have become increasingly perverse in terms of competition for research funding, development of quantitative metrics to measure performance, and a changing business model for higher education itself. Furthermore, decreased discretionary funding at the federal and state level is creating a hypercompetitive environment between government agencies (e.g., EPA, NIH, CDC), for scientists in these agencies, and for academics seeking funding from all sources—the combination of perverse incentives and decreased funding increases pressures that can lead to unethical behavior. If a critical mass of scientists become untrustworthy, a tipping point is possible in which the scientific enterprise itself becomes inherently corrupt and public trust is lost, risking a new dark age with devastating consequences to humanity. Academia and federal agencies should better support science as a public good, and incentivize altruistic and ethical outco...},
	number = {00},
	journal = {Environmental Engineering Science},
	author = {Edwards, Marc A. and Roy, Siddhartha},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {academic research, funding, misconduct, perverse incentives, scientific integrity},
	pages = {ees.2016.0223}
}

@article{einstein_ist_1905,
	title = {Ist die {Tr}??gheit eines {K}??rpers von seinem {Energieinhalt} abh??ngig?},
	volume = {323},
	issn = {15213889},
	doi = {10.1002/andp.19053231314},
	abstract = {This edition of Einstein’s Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy-Content is based on the English translation of his original 1905 German- language paper (published as Ist die Tr¨ agheit eines K¨ orpers von seinem En- ergiegehalt abh¨ angig?, in Annalen der Physik. 18:639, 1905) which appeared in the book The Principle of Relativity, published in 1923 by Methuen and Company, Ltd. of London. Most of the papers in that collection are English translations by W. Perrett and G.B. Jeffery from the German Das Relativat- sprinzip, 4th ed., published by in 1922 by Tuebner. All of these sources are now in the public domain; this document, derived from them, remains in the public domain and may be reproduced in any manner or medium without permission, restriction, attribution, or compensation. The footnote is as it appeared in the 1923 edition. The 1923 English translation modified the notation used in Einstein’s 1905 paper to conform to that in use by the 1920’s; for example, c denotes the speed of light, as opposed the V used by Einstein in 1905. In this paper Einstein uses L to denote energy; the italicised sentence in the conclusion may be written as the equation “m = L/c2” which, using the more modern E instead of L to denote energy, may be trivially rewritten as “E = mc2”. This edition was prepared by John Walker. The current version of this document is available in a variety of formats from the editor’s Web site},
	number = {13},
	journal = {Annalen der Physik},
	author = {Einstein, A.},
	year = {1905},
	pmid = {7278865872955366000},
	note = {ISBN: 1521-3889},
	pages = {639--641}
}

@article{brassard_can_2010,
	title = {Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered correct?},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {00159018},
	doi = {10.1007/s10701-010-9411-9},
	abstract = {In a complete theory there is an element corresponding to each element of reality. A sufficient condition for the reality of a physical quantity is the possibility of predicting it with certainty, without disturbing the system. In quantum mechanics in the case of two physical quantities ...},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Foundations of Physics},
	author = {Brassard, Gilles and Méthot, A. Allan},
	year = {2010},
	pmid = {201519800010},
	note = {arXiv: quant-ph/0701001
ISBN: 978-1-4020-9510-8},
	keywords = {Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen, Elements of reality, Logic, Quantum mechanics},
	pages = {463--468}
}

@article{bowden_henry_1981,
	title = {Henry {Stommel} and physical oceanography since 1945},
	volume = {291},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	doi = {10.1038/291437a0},
	number = {5814},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Bowden, K.F.},
	year = {1981},
	pages = {437--437}
}

@article{stommel_oceqnus_1992,
	title = {to {Oceqnus}},
	volume = {35},
	author = {Stommel, Henry and Stommel, Henry and Cullen, Vicky and Clark, Lisa and Gaffron, Barbara and Young, Jeanne and Schneider, Ellen and Doucette, Jayne and Wilson, Stanley},
	year = {1992}
}

@article{graphy_what_2014,
	title = {What goes down must come up {Sound} processing takes motor control},
	author = {Graphy, O C E A N O},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {7--8}
}
@article{jansson_phytosequestration:_2010,
	title = {Phytosequestration: {Carbon} {Biosequestration} by {Plants} and the {Prospects} of {Genetic} {Engineering}},
	volume = {60},
	issn = {0006-3568},
	doi = {10.1525/bio.2010.60.9.6},
	abstract = {Photosynthetic assimilation of atmospheric carbon dioxide by land plants offers the underpinnings for terrestrial carbon (C) sequestration. A proportion of the C captured in plant biomass is partitioned to roots, where it enters the pools of soil organic C and soil inorganic C and can be sequestered for millennia. Bioenergy crops serve the dual role of providing biofuel that offsets fossil-fuel greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and sequestering C in the soil through extensive root systems. Carbon captured in plant biomass can also contribute to C sequestration through the deliberate addition of biochar to soil, wood burial, or the use of durable plant products. Increasing our understanding of plant, microbial, and soil biology, and harnessing the benefits of traditional genetics and genetic engineering, will help us fully realize the GHG mitigation potential of phytosequestration.},
	number = {9},
	journal = {BioScience},
	author = {Jansson, Christer and Wullschleger, Stan D. and Kalluri, Udaya C. and Tuskan, Gerald a.},
	year = {2010},
	note = {ISBN: 0006-3568},
	keywords = {1 gt 5, be around 3170 gigatons, bioenergy crops, carbon dioxide, carbon sequestration, co 2, e, genetic engineering, gt, i, in terrestrial, organic and inorganic c, phytosequestration, synthetic uptake of atmospheric, systems is estimated to, the total c stock},
	pages = {685--696}
}

@article{series_10/10_2010,
	title = {10/10 {Excellent} {Article}},
	volume = {162},
	number = {3859},
	author = {Series, New},
	year = {2010},
	pages = {1243--1248}
}

@article{ipcc_climate_2014,
	title = {Climate {Change} 2014 {Synthesis} {Report} {Summary} {Chapter} for {Policymakers}},
	issn = {1476-4687},
	doi = {10.1017/CBO9781107415324},
	abstract = {This Synthesis Report is based on the reports of the three Working Groups of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), including relevant Special Reports. It provides an integrated view of climate change as the final part of the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5). This summary follows the structure of the longer report which addresses the following topics: Observed changes and their causes; Future climate change, risks and impacts; Future pathways for adaptation, mitigation and sustainable development; Adaptation and mitigation. In the Synthesis Report, the certainty in key assessment findings is communicated as in the Working Group Reports and Special Reports. It is based on the author teams’ evaluations of underlying scientific understanding and is expressed as a qualitative level of confidence (from very low to very high) and, when possible, probabilistically with a quantified likelihood (from exceptionally unlikely to virtually certain)1 . Where appropriate, findings are also formulated as statements of fact with- out using uncertainty qualifiers. This report includes information relevant to Article 2 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)},
	journal = {Ipcc},
	author = {{IPCC}},
	year = {2014},
	pmid = {17429376},
	note = {arXiv: 1011.1669v3
ISBN: 9781107661820},
	keywords = {Climate change},
	pages = {31}
}

@article{change_no_2005,
	title = {No {Title}},
	author = {Change, Climatic},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {269--279}
}

@article{edenhofer_technical_2014,
	title = {Technical {Summary}},
	issn = {14764687},
	doi = {10.1103/PhysRevD.70.106002},
	abstract = {This latest Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) will again form the standard reference for all those concerned with climate change and its consequences, including students, researchers and policy makers in environmental science, meteorology, climatology, biology, ecology, atmospheric chemistry and environmental policy.},
	journal = {Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of climate change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change},
	author = {Edenhofer, Ottmar and Pichs-Madruga, Ramon and Sokona, Youba and Kadner, Susanne and Minx, Jan and Brunner, Steffen and Agrawala, S. and Baiocchi, G. and Bashmakov, I.A. and Blanco, G. and Broome, J. and Bruckner, T. and Bustamante, M. and Clarke, L. and Conte Grand, M. and Creutzig, F. and Cruz-Núñez, X. and Dhakal, S. and Dubash, N.K. and Eickemeier, P. and Farahani, E. and Fischedick, M. and Fleurbaey, M. and Gerlagh, R. and Gómez-Echeverri, L. and Gupta, S. and Harnisch, J. and Jiang, K. and Jotzo, F. and Kartha, S. and Klasen, S. and Kolstad, C. and Krey, V. and Kunreuther, H. and Lucon, O. and Masera, O. and Mulugetta, Y. and Norgaard, R.B. and Patt, A. and Ravindranath, N.H. and Riahi, L. and Roy, J. and Sagar, A. and Schaeffer, R. and Schlömer, S. and Seto, K.C. and Seyboth, K. and Sims, R. and Smith, P. and Somanathan, E. and Stavins, R. and von Stechow, C. and Sterner, T. and Sugiyama, T. and Suh, S. and Ürge-Vorsatz, D. and Urama, K. and Venables, A. and Victor, D. G. and Weber, E. and Zhou, D. and Zou, J. and Zwickel, T.},
	year = {2014},
	pmid = {166626221},
	note = {ISBN: 1316395375},
	pages = {33--107}
}

@article{solomon_technical_2007,
	title = {Technical summary},
	journal = {Wmo.Int},
	author = {Solomon, S and Qin, D and Manning, M and Alley, RB},
	year = {2007},
	pages = {21--83}
}

@article{allen_technical_2013,
	title = {Technical {Summary}},
	journal = {Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change},
	author = {Allen, Simon K and Bindoff, Nathaniel L and France, François-marie Bréon and Cubasch, Ulrich and Uk, Myles R Allen and France, Olivier Boucher and Hesselbjerg, Jens and Denmark, Christensen and France, Philippe Ciais and Uk, Matthew Collins and Vasconcellos, Viviane and Feely, Richard A},
	year = {2013},
	pages = {33--115}
}

@article{group_climate_2013,
	title = {Climate {Change} 2013: {The} {Physical} {Science} {Basis}},
	number = {January 2014},
	author = {Group, Working},
	year = {2013}
}

@article{rasool_runaway_1970,
	title = {The runaway greenhouse and the accumulation of {CO2} in the {Venus} atmosphere},
	volume = {226},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.google.de/search?client=safari&rls=en-us&q=The+runaway+greenhouse+and+the+accumulation+of+CO2+in+the+Venus+atmosphere&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&redir_esc=&ei=OnSgT4ulJIzR4QSDutSDAw\npapers://0be24a46-325a-4116-a3c6-fd8a3b614472/Paper/p11693},
	doi = {10.1038/2261037a0},
	abstract = {Conditions on Earth would be as hostile as on Venus if the Earth were closer to the Sun by only 6-10 million miles.},
	number = {5250},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Rasool, S I and De Bergh, C},
	year = {1970},
	pmid = {16057644},
	pages = {1037--1039}
}

@article{noauthor__1970,
	title = {© 1970 {Nature} {Publishing} {Group}},
	volume = {228},
	number = {24},
	journal = {Nature publishing},
	year = {1970},
	pages = {361--362}
}

@article{gray_title_nodate,
	title = {Title : {Direct} observation of the three-dimensional meridional overturning circulation in the {Southern} {Ocean}},
	author = {Gray, Authors Alison and Riser, Stephen}
}

@incollection{Olbers1989,
	address = {Dordrecht},
	title = {Determining {Diffusivities} from {Hydrographic} {Data} by {Inverse} {Methods} with {Applications} to the {Circumpolar} {Current}},
	url = {http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.1007/978-94-009-1013-3_3},
	urldate = {2016-12-13},
	booktitle = {Oceanic {Circulation} {Models}: {Combining} {Data} and {Dynamics}},
	publisher = {Springer Netherlands},
	author = {Olbers, Dirk and Wenzel, Manfred},
	year = {1989},
	doi = {10.1007/978-94-009-1013-3_3},
	pages = {95--139}
}

@article{MacKinnon2013,
	title = {Oceanography: {Mountain} waves in the deep ocean},
	volume = {501},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/501321a},
	doi = {10.1038/501321a},
	number = {7467},
	urldate = {2016-12-13},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {MacKinnon, Jennifer},
	month = sep,
	year = {2013},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Research},
	pages = {321--322}
}

@article{Gregg1989,
	title = {Scaling turbulent dissipation in the thermocline},
	volume = {94},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JC094iC07p09686},
	doi = {10.1029/JC094iC07p09686},
	number = {C7},
	urldate = {2016-12-12},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Gregg, M. C.},
	year = {1989},
	pages = {9686}
}

@article{garrett_internal_2003,
	title = {Internal {Tides} and {Ocean} {Mixing}},
	volume = {301},
	number = {5641},
	urldate = {2016-12-11},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Garrett, Chris},
	year = {2003}
}

@article{koi_fluid_nodate,
	title = {{ON} {FLUID} {MOTIONS} {PRODUCED} {BY} {DIFFERENCES} {OF} {TEMPERATURE} {AND} {HUMIDITY}},
	abstract = {Let 11s consider a fluid at rest under no external forces save gravity and the pressures over its boundaries. We wish t o know in what circumstances, if any, the Huid can remain at rest when hcat o r water vapour is supplied or extracted over dosed surfaces within the h i d . The dynamical equations to be satisfied, if the fluid is to be in equilibrium, are ihe three fundamental equations of hydrostatics, namely :-I -I -3 p \_-+ s = o D where p is the pressure, p the density, x , y, B rectangular coordi-nates of position, and X, Y, Z components of force per unit mass. If U be the gravitation potential, so that the equations (I) can be combined into the single equation and since p, p and U are all single-valued functions of position this relation is possible only if p and p are functions of U alone. Thus the level surfaces must be surfaces of equal pressure and equal density. Then the density is a single-valued function of pressure and temperature, and the temperature i s therefore a function of pressure and density, and will be a single-valued function unless the temperatures within the system include ranges both above and below the temperature of maximum density of the fluid, if it has one.},
	urldate = {2016-12-11},
	author = {{\textbackslash}koi, I3y M}
}

@article{stommel_abyssal_1972,
	title = {On the abyssal circulation of the world ocean—{V}. {The} influence of bottom slope on the broadening of inertial boundary currents},
	volume = {19},
	issn = {00117471},
	doi = {10.1016/0011-7471(72)90062-9},
	abstract = {A potential vorticity conserving model is offered to explain the remarkably great width of western boundary bottom currents, such as that which conveys the Antarctic Bottom Water northward in the western trough of the South Atlantic Ocean. Effects of varying bottom slope, latitude, and transport are explored. The essential element in this explanation is the small slope of the bottom along which the current flows.},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2016-12-11},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts},
	author = {Stommel, Henry and Arons, Arnold B},
	year = {1972},
	note = {Publisher: Elsevier},
	pages = {707--718}
}

@article{reid_detection_1968,
	title = {Detection of a {Deep} {Boundary} {Current} in the {Western} {South} {Pacific}},
	volume = {217},
	issn = {0028-0836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/217937a0},
	doi = {10.1038/217937a0},
	number = {5132},
	urldate = {2016-12-11},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {REID, JOSEPH and STOMMEL, HENRY and STROUP, E. DIXON and WARREN, BRUCE A.},
	month = mar,
	year = {1968},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {937--937}
}

@article{arons_abyssal_1967,
	title = {On the abyssal circulation of the {World} {Ocean}—{III}. {An} advection-lateral mixing model of the distribution of a tracer property in an ocean basin},
	volume = {14},
	issn = {00117471},
	doi = {10.1016/0011-7471(67)90051-4},
	abstract = {The basic advection, recirculation model of abyssal circulation, developed in Parts I and II of this sequence (Stommel and Arons, 1960a; 1960b), is used to interpret the distribution of dissolved oxygen and radiocarbon in the abyssal North Atlantic (depths {\textgreater} 2000 m). The model analyzed the interplay between advection and large scale lateral mixing processes, yielding a value of the order of 6–7 × 106 cm2/sec for the lateral austausch coefficient and 2·0–2·5 × 10−3 ml/l., year for the decay rate of dissolved oxygen.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2016-12-11},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts},
	author = {Arons, A.B. and Stommel, Henry},
	year = {1967},
	note = {Publisher: Elsevier},
	pages = {441--457}
}

@article{stommel_abyssal_1957,
	title = {The {Abyssal} {Circulation} of the {Ocean}},
	volume = {180},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/180733a0},
	doi = {10.1038/180733a0},
	number = {4589},
	urldate = {2016-12-11},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Stommel, H.},
	month = oct,
	year = {1957},
	pages = {733--734}
}

@article{egbert_significant_2000,
	title = {Significant dissipation of tidal energy in the deep ocean inferred from satellite altimeter data},
	volume = {405},
	issn = {00280836},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/35015531},
	doi = {10.1038/35015531},
	number = {6788},
	urldate = {2016-12-09},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Egbert, G. D. and Ray, R. D.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2000},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {775--778}
}

@article{sverdrup_oceans:_1942,
	title = {The {Oceans}: {Their} {Physics}, {Chemistry} and {General} {Biology}},
	issn = {0262033054},
	doi = {10.2307/210609},
	abstract = {A comprehensive treatise on all phases of oceanography. The viewpoint is primarily physical but the interrelations of the biol. and chem. aspects of the subject are considered in comparable detail. The researches and theories of the last few yrs. have been incorporated, bringing together information previously obtainable only from widely scattered sources. Original conclusions by the authors from this recent material are presented in many instances: "At the risk of premature generalizations we have, .... preferred definite statements to mere enumeration of uncorrelated observations and conflicting interpretations, believing that the treatment selected would be more stimulating (p.v)." The work is composed of 20 chapters, an appendix comprising tables for the computation of geopotential distances between isobaric surfaces, and a series of 7 folded charts illustrating ocean basins, temps., salinities and currents. Titles of the chapters are: I. Introduction, II. The Earth and Ocean Basins, III. Physical Properties of Sea Water, IV. General Distribution of Temperature, Salinity and Density, V. Theory of Distribution of Variables in the Sea, VI. Chemistry of Sea Water, VII. Organisms and the Composition of Sea Water, VIII. The Sea as a Biological Environment, IX. Populations of the Sea, X. Observations and Collections at Sea, XL General Character of Ocean Currents, XII. Statics and Kinematics, XIII. Dynamics of Ocean Currents, XIV. Waves and Tides, XV. The Water Masses and Currents of the Oceans, XVI. Phytoplankton in Relation to Physical-Chemical Properties of the Environment, XVII. Animals in Relation to Physical-Chemical Properties of the Environment, XVIII. Interrelations of Marine Organisms, XIX. Organic Production in the Sea, XX. Marine Sedimentation. Each chapter is provided with a bibliography of important books and papers. There are 265 figures, 121 tables, a subject index and an index of names. The book is expected to assist both beginner and specialist in coordinating the many phases of oceanography. Inasmuch as the material included has been assembled from numerous sources, many of them not easily accessible, it constitutes a veritable en[long dash]cyclopedia of oceanography, and will be useful as a reference work as well as a text. {\textbar}{\textbar} ABSTRACT AUTHORS: J. W. Hedgpeth},
	journal = {Oceanography},
	author = {Sverdrup, H. and Johnson, M. and Fleming, R.},
	year = {1942},
	pmid = {999999},
	note = {arXiv: 1011.1669v3
ISBN: 9788578110796},
	keywords = {Oceanography.},
	pages = {1104}
}

@article{Whalen2012,
	title = {Spatial and temporal variability of global ocean mixing inferred from {Argo} profiles},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {00948276},
	doi = {10.1029/2012GL053196},
	abstract = {The influence of turbulent ocean mixing transcends its inherently small scales to affect large scale ocean processes including water-mass transformation, stratification maintenance, and the overturning circulation. However, the distribution of ocean mixing is not well described by sparse ship-based observations since this mixing is both spatially patchy and temporally intermittent. We use strain information from Argo float profiles in the upper 2,000 m of the ocean to generate over 400,000 estimates of the energy dissipation rate, indicative of ocean mixing. These estimates rely on numerous assumptions, and do not take the place of direct measurement methods. Temporally averaged estimates reveal clear spatial patterns in the parameterized dissipation rate and diffusivity distribution across all the oceans. They corroborate previous observations linking elevated dissipation rates to regions of rough topography. We also observe heightened estimated dissipation rates in areas of high eddy kinetic energy, aswell as heightened diffusivity in high latitudes where stratification is weak. The seasonal dependence of mixing is observed in the Northwest Pacific, suggesting a wind-forced response in the upper ocean. Citation: Whalen, C. B., L. D. Talley, and J. A. MacKinnon (2012), Spatial and temporal variability of global ocean mixing inferred from Argo profiles, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L18612, doi:10.1029/2012GL053196.},
	number = {17},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Whalen, C. B. and Talley, L. D. and MacKinnon, J. A.},
	year = {2012},
	note = {ISBN: 1944-8007},
	keywords = {Argo floats, diapycnal mixing, internal waves, near-inertial waves, rough topography},
	pages = {1--6}
}

@misc{noauthor_polzin1995_finescale_parameterization.pdf_nodate,
	title = {Polzin1995\_Finescale\_parameterization.pdf}
}

@article{whalen_estimating_2015,
	title = {Estimating the {Mean} {Diapycnal} {Mixing} {Using} a {Finescale} {Strain} {Parameterization}},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-14-0167.1\nhttp://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-14-0167.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-14-0167.1},
	abstract = {AbstractFinescale methods are currently being applied to estimate the mean turbulent dissipation rate and diffusivity on regional and global scales. This study evaluates finescale estimates derived from isopycnal strain by comparing them with average microstructure profiles from six diverse environments including the equator, above ridges, near seamounts, and in strong currents. The finescale strain estimates are derived from at least 10 nearby Argo profiles (generally {\textless}60 km distant) with no temporal restrictions, including measurements separated by seasons or decades. The absence of temporal limits is reasonable in these cases, since the authors find the dissipation rate is steady over seasonal time scales at the latitudes being considered (0°?30° and 40°?50°). In contrast, a seasonal cycle of a factor of 2?5 in the upper 1000 m is found under storm tracks (30°?40°) in both hemispheres. Agreement between the mean dissipation rate calculated using Argo profiles and mean from microstructure profiles is within a factor of 2?3 for 96\% of the comparisons. This is both congruous with the physical scaling underlying the finescale parameterization and indicates that the method is effective for estimating the regional mean dissipation rates in the open ocean.},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Whalen, Caitlin B. and MacKinnon, Jennifer a. and Talley, Lynne D. and Waterhouse, Amy F.},
	year = {2015},
	pmid = {17798761},
	note = {ISBN: 0003-0007},
	pages = {1174--1188}
}

@article{Polzin1995,
	title = {Finescale {Parameterizations} of {Turbulent} {Dissipation}},
	volume = {25},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0485%281995%29025%3C0306%3AFPOTD%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1995)025<0306:FPOTD>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Abstract Fine- and microstructure data from a free fall profiler are analysed to test models that relate the turbulent dissipation rate (ϵ) to characteristics of the internal wave field. The data were obtained from several distinct internal wave environments, yielding considerably more range in stratification and wave properties than has been previously available. Observations from the ocean interior with negligible large-scale flow were examined to address the buoyancy scaling of ϵ. These data exhibited a factor of 140 range in squared buoyancy frequency (N2) with depth and uniform internal wave characteristics, consistent with the Garrettt–Munk spectrum. The magnitude of ϵ and its variation with N(ϵ ∼ N2) was best described by the dynamical model of Henyey et al. A second dynamical model, by McComas and Muller, predicted an appropriate buoyancy scaling but overestimated the observed dissipation rates. Two kinematical dissipation parameterizations predicted buoyancy scalings of N3/2; these are shown to b...},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2016-09-29},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Polzin, Kurt L. and Toole, John M. and Schmitt, Raymond W. and Polzin, Kurt L. and Toole, John M. and Schmitt, Raymond W.},
	month = mar,
	year = {1995},
	pages = {306--328}
}

@article{Ferrari2011,
	title = {What processes drive the ocean heat transport?},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {14635003},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2011.02.013},
	abstract = {The ocean contributes to regulating the Earth's climate through its ability to transport heat from the equator to the poles. In this study we use long simulations of an ocean model to investigate whether the heat transport is carried primarily by wind-driven gyres or whether it is dominated by deep circulations associated with abyssal mixing and high latitude convection. The heat transport is computed as a function of temperature classes. In the Pacific and Indian ocean, the bulk of the heat transport is associated with wind-driven gyres confined to the thermocline. In the Atlantic, the thermocline gyres account for only 40\% of the total heat transport. The remaining 60\% is associated with a circulation reaching down to cold waters below the thermocline. Using a series of sensitivity experiments, we show that this deep heat transport is primarily set by the strength and patterns of surface winds and only secondarily by diabatic processes at high latitudes in the North Atlantic. Abyssal mixing below 2000. m has hardly any impact on ocean heat transport. A major implication is that the role of the ocean in regulating Earth's climate strongly depends on how surface winds change across different climates in both hemispheres at low and high latitudes. ?? 2011 Elsevier Ltd.},
	number = {3-4},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Ferrari, Raffaele and Ferreira, David},
	year = {2011},
	note = {ISBN: 1463-5003},
	keywords = {Climate, Ocean convection, Ocean heat transport, Ocean mixing, Wind},
	pages = {171--186}
}

@article{Marshall1999,
	title = {Reconciling thermodynamic and dynamic methods of computation of water-mass transformation rates},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {09670637},
	doi = {10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00082-X},
	abstract = {The computation of the water-mass transformation rate in a particular density range from thermodynamic and dynamic methods are compared and reconciled by diagnosis of the Atlantic sector of a global integration of an ocean model driven by analyzed air-sea fluxes. In the absence of diffusive processes, the rate of subduction of fluid between two density surfaces across a fixed control surface, and integrated across the ocean from one solid boundary to another, must be equal to the rate of formation of fluid at the sea surface induced by surface fluxes in that density range. But due to the action of mixing on the body of fluid between the control surface and the sea-surface, transformation may differ from the integrated subduction. We find that vertical diffusive fluxes at the base of the winter mixed layer and in the seasonal thermocline can substantially modify transformation due to air-sea interaction and bring about an accommodation between it and the subduction rate. In high latitudes, an additional accommodation is achieved by lateral diffusive fluxes directed across the almost vertical isopycnals, typical of the deep, end-of-winter mixed layers of the sub-polar gyre. Finally we speculate on the likely nature and intensity of the mixing processes at work in the boundary layer of the ocean and their role in subduction and transformation.},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Deep-Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers},
	author = {Marshall, John and Jamous, Daniel and Nilsson, Johan},
	year = {1999},
	note = {ISBN: 0967-0637},
	pages = {545--572}
}

@article{Weijer,
	title = {Impact of {Agulhas} {Leakage} on the {Atlantic} {Overturning} {Circulation} in the {CCSM4}},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00714.1},
	abstract = {The impact of Agulhas leakage variability on the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circu-lation (AMOC) in the Community Climate System Model, version 4 (CCSM4) is investigated. In this model an advective connection exists that transports salinity anomalies from the Agulhas region into the North Atlantic on decadal (30–40 yr) time scales. However, there is no identifiable impact of Agulhas leakage on the strength of the AMOC, suggesting that the salinity variations are too weak to significantly modify the stratification in the North Atlantic. It is argued that this study is inconclusive with respect to an impact of Agulhas leakage on the AMOC. Salinity biases leave the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans too homogeneous, in particular erasing the observed salinity front in the Agulhas retroflection region. Consequently, salinity variability in the southeastern South Atlantic is found to be much weaker than observed.},
	urldate = {2016-07-18},
	author = {Weijer, Wilbert and Sebille, Erik Van}
}

@article{mazloff_cross-stream_2015,
	title = {Cross-stream transport near the {Drake} {Passage} {Jinbo} {Wang} ´ {Messias} , {Andrew} {Watson} {Marie}-{Jos} e},
	author = {Mazloff, Matthew R and Gille, Sarah T and Ledwell, James R},
	year = {2015}
}

@article{sciences_generalized_2002,
	title = {A {Generalized} {Transport} {Theory} : {Water}-{Mass} {Composition} and {Age}},
	author = {Sciences, Planetary},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {1932--1946}
}

@article{Waugh2003,
	title = {Relationships among tracer ages},
	volume = {108},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2002JC001325},
	doi = {10.1029/2002JC001325},
	number = {C5},
	urldate = {2016-06-29},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	author = {Waugh, Darryn W. and Hall, Timothy M. and Haine, Thomas W. N.},
	year = {2003},
	keywords = {ocean tracers, ocean transport, tracer ages, transit time distributions},
	pages = {3138}
}

@article{farneti_assessment_2015,
	title = {An assessment of {Antarctic} {Circumpolar} {Current} and {Southern} {Ocean} meridional overturning circulation during 1958–2007 in a suite of interannual {CORE}-{II} simulations},
	volume = {93},
	issn = {14635003},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ocemod.2015.07.009},
	abstract = {In the framework of the second phase of the Coordinated Ocean-ice Reference Experiments (CORE-II), we present an analysis of the representation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) and Southern Ocean meridional overturning circulation (MOC) in a suite of seventeen global ocean–sea ice models. We focus on the mean, variability and trends of both the ACC and MOC over the 1958–2007 period, and discuss their relationship with the surface forcing. We aim to quantify the degree of eddy saturation and eddy compensation in the models participating in CORE-II, and compare our results with available observations, previous fine-resolution numerical studies and theoretical constraints. Most models show weak ACC transport sensitivity to changes in forcing during the past five decades, and they can be considered to be in an eddy saturated regime. Larger contrasts arise when considering MOC trends, with a majority of models exhibiting significant strengthening of the MOC during the late 20th and early 21st century. Only a few models show a relatively small sensitivity to forcing changes, responding with an intensified eddy-induced circulation that provides some degree of eddy compensation, while still showing considerable decadal trends. Both ACC and MOC interannual variabilities are largely controlled by the Southern Annular Mode (SAM). Based on these results, models are clustered into two groups. Models with constant or two-dimensional (horizontal) specification of the eddy-induced advection coefficient κ show larger ocean interior decadal trends, larger ACC transport decadal trends and no eddy compensation in the MOC. Eddy-permitting models or models with a three-dimensional time varying κ show smaller changes in isopycnal slopes and associated ACC trends, and partial eddy compensation. As previously argued, a constant in time or space κ is responsible for a poor representation of mesoscale eddy effects and cannot properly simulate the sensitivity of the ACC and MOC to changing surface forcing. Evidence is given for a larger sensitivity of the MOC as compared to the ACC transport, even when approaching eddy saturation. Future process studies designed for disentangling the role of momentum and buoyancy forcing in driving the ACC and MOC are proposed.},
	urldate = {2016-06-20},
	journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	author = {Farneti, Riccardo and Downes, Stephanie M. and Griffies, Stephen M. and Marsland, Simon J. and Behrens, Erik and Bentsen, Mats and Bi, Daohua and Biastoch, Arne and Böning, Claus and Bozec, Alexandra and Canuto, Vittorio M. and Chassignet, Eric and Danabasoglu, Gokhan and Danilov, Sergey and Diansky, Nikolay and Drange, Helge and Fogli, Pier Giuseppe and Gusev, Anatoly and Hallberg, Robert W. and Howard, Armando and Ilicak, Mehmet and Jung, Thomas and Kelley, Maxwell and Large, William G. and Leboissetier, Anthony and Long, Matthew and Lu, Jianhua and Masina, Simona and Mishra, Akhilesh and Navarra, Antonio and George Nurser, A.J. and Patara, Lavinia and Samuels, Bonita L. and Sidorenko, Dmitry and Tsujino, Hiroyuki and Uotila, Petteri and Wang, Qiang and Yeager, Steve G.},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {84--120}
}

@article{Wang2014,
	title = {Pathways of the {Agulhas} waters poleward of 29°{S}},
	volume = {119},
	issn = {21699275},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2014JC010049},
	doi = {10.1002/2014JC010049},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2016-06-16},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Wang, Jinbo and Mazloff, Matthew R. and Gille, Sarah T.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {Agulhas Current, Antarctic Circumpolar Current, Indian Ocean, Kerguelen Plateau, interbasin exchange, mode water formation},
	pages = {4234--4250}
}

@article{griffies_elements_nodate,
	title = {Elements of {Style} for {Writing} {Scientific} {Journal} {Articles}},
	urldate = {2016-06-14},
	author = {Griffies, Stephen M}
}

@article{cheng_how_2016,
	title = {How {Has} {Human}-{Induced} {Climate} {Change} {Affected} {California} {Drought} {Risk}?},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0260.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0260.1},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Cheng, Linyin and Hoerling, Martin and AghaKouchak, Amir and Livneh, Ben and Quan, Xiao-Wei and Eischeid, Jon},
	month = jan,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {111--120}
}

@article{lecuyer_observed_2015,
	title = {The {Observed} {State} of the {Energy} {Budget} in the {Early} {Twenty}-{First} {Century}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00556.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00556.1},
	number = {21},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {L’Ecuyer, Tristan S. and Beaudoing, H. K. and Rodell, M. and Olson, W. and Lin, B. and Kato, S. and Clayson, C. A. and Wood, E. and Sheffield, J. and Adler, R. and Huffman, G. and Bosilovich, M. and Gu, G. and Robertson, F. and Houser, P. R. and Chambers, D. and Famiglietti, J. S. and Fetzer, E. and Liu, W. T. and Gao, X. and Schlosser, C. A. and Clark, E. and Lettenmaier, D. P. and Hilburn, K.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {8319--8346}
}

@article{knutson_global_2015,
	title = {Global {Projections} of {Intense} {Tropical} {Cyclone} {Activity} for the {Late} {Twenty}-{First} {Century} from {Dynamical} {Downscaling} of {CMIP5}/{RCP4}.5 {Scenarios}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0129.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0129.1},
	number = {18},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Knutson, Thomas R. and Sirutis, Joseph J. and Zhao, Ming and Tuleya, Robert E. and Bender, Morris and Vecchi, Gabriel A. and Villarini, Gabriele and Chavas, Daniel},
	month = sep,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {7203--7224}
}

@article{sardeshmukh_need_2015,
	title = {Need for {Caution} in {Interpreting} {Extreme} {Weather} {Statistics}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0020.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0020.1},
	number = {23},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Sardeshmukh, Prashant D. and Compo, Gilbert P. and Penland, Cécile},
	month = dec,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {9166--9187}
}

@article{seager_causes_2015,
	title = {Causes of the 2011–14 {California} {Drought}*},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00860.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00860.1},
	number = {18},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Seager, Richard and Hoerling, Martin and Schubert, Siegfried and Wang, Hailan and Lyon, Bradfield and Kumar, Arun and Nakamura, Jennifer and Henderson, Naomi},
	month = sep,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {6997--7024}
}

@article{yang_initiation_2012,
	title = {The {Initiation} of {Modern} “{Soft} {Snowball}” and “{Hard} {Snowball}” {Climates} in {CCSM3}. {Part} {II}: {Climate} {Dynamic} {Feedbacks}},
	volume = {25},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00190.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00190.1},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Yang, Jun and Peltier, W. Richard and Hu, Yongyun},
	month = apr,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {2737--2754}
}

@article{stevens_rethinking_2015,
	title = {Rethinking the {Lower} {Bound} on {Aerosol} {Radiative} {Forcing}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00656.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00656.1},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Stevens, Bjorn},
	month = jun,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {4794--4819}
}

@article{delworth_link_2015,
	title = {A {Link} between the {Hiatus} in {Global} {Warming} and {North} {American} {Drought}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00616.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00616.1},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Delworth, Thomas L. and Zeng, Fanrong and Rosati, Anthony and Vecchi, Gabriel A. and Wittenberg, Andrew T.},
	month = may,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {3834--3845}
}

@article{rodell_observed_2015,
	title = {The {Observed} {State} of the {Water} {Cycle} in the {Early} {Twenty}-{First} {Century}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00555.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00555.1},
	number = {21},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Rodell, M. and Beaudoing, H. K. and L’Ecuyer, T. S. and Olson, W. S. and Famiglietti, J. S. and Houser, P. R. and Adler, R. and Bosilovich, M. G. and Clayson, C. A. and Chambers, D. and Clark, E. and Fetzer, E. J. and Gao, X. and Gu, G. and Hilburn, K. and Huffman, G. J. and Lettenmaier, D. P. and Liu, W. T. and Robertson, F. R. and Schlosser, C. A. and Sheffield, J. and Wood, E. F.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {8289--8318}
}

@article{Gent2016,
	title = {Effects of {Southern} {Hemisphere} {Wind} {Changes} on the {Meridional} {Overturning} {Circulation} in {Ocean} {Models}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1941-1405},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-marine-122414-033929},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-marine-122414-033929},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Annual Review of Marine Science},
	author = {Gent, Peter R.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {79--94}
}

@article{wolfram_diagnosing_2015,
	title = {Diagnosing {Isopycnal} {Diffusivity} in an {Eddying}, {Idealized} {Midlatitude} {Ocean} {Basin} via {Lagrangian}, in {Situ}, {Global}, {High}-{Performance} {Particle} {Tracking} ({LIGHT})},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JPO-D-14-0260.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-14-0260.1},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Wolfram, Phillip J. and Ringler, Todd D. and Maltrud, Mathew E. and Jacobsen, Douglas W. and Petersen, Mark R.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {2114--2133}
}

@article{Thompson2012,
	title = {Jets and {Topography}: {Jet} {Transitions} and the {Impact} on {Transport} in the {Antarctic} {Circumpolar} {Current}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JPO-D-11-0135.1},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-11-0135.1},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2016-06-13},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Thompson, Andrew F. and Sallée, Jean-Baptiste},
	month = jun,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {956--972}
}

@article{kawase_establishment_1987,
	title = {Establishment of {Deep} {Ocean} {Circulation} {Driven} by {Deep}-{Water} {Production}},
	volume = {17},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1987)017<2294:EODOCD>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {A linear, two-layer baroclinic model of deep circulation driven by deep water production is formulated. In distinction to the Stommel-Arons model where a uniform middepth upwelling is prescribed, the present model determines upwelling internally by inclusion of a Newtonian damping term in the continuity equation. Analytical solutions for the steady state are derived using the equatorial beta-plane approximation, which show that the coefficient of damping in the upwelling term determines the nature of the flow. With a large damping coefficient, the deep western boundary current from the deep-water source region does not cross the equator, but rather separates along it. The current reaches the eastern boundary and then flows poleward in both hemispheres as an eastern boundary current. In the limit of very weak damping, the flow spins up to the Stommel-Arons state, with the western boundary current crossing the equator and with poleward flows in the interior. Numerical experiments on the spherical coordinates confirm the results of analytical theory for the steady state. They also show that the flow is first set up by a Kelvin wave along the western-equatorial-eastern boundary layers; then, in the case of weak damping, the eastern boundary current disperses as long Rossby waves to set up the poleward interior flow of the Stommel-Arons model.},
	number = {12},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Kawase, Mitsuhiro},
	year = {1987},
	pages = {2294--2317}
}

@article{kuhlbrodt_driving_2007,
	title = {On the driving processes of the {Atlantic} meridional overturning circulation},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {87551209},
	url = {http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2007/2004RG000166.shtml},
	doi = {10.1029/2004RG000166.1.INTRODUCTION},
	abstract = {Because of its relevance for the global climate the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) has been a major research focus for many years. Yet the question of which physical mechanisms ultimately drive the AMOC, in the sense of providing its energy supply, remains a matter of controversy. Here we review both observational data and model results concerning the two main candidates: vertical mixing processes in the ocean's interior and wind-induced Ekman upwelling in the Southern Ocean. In distinction to the energy source we also discuss the role of surface heat and freshwater fluxes, which influence the volume transport of the meridional overturning circulation and shape its spatial circulation pattern without actually supplying energy to the overturning itself in steady state. We conclude that both wind-driven upwelling and vertical mixing are likely contributing to driving the observed circulation. To quantify their respective contributions, future research needs to address some open questions, which we outline.},
	number = {2004},
	journal = {Atlantic},
	author = {Kuhlbrodt, T and Griesel, a and Montoya, M and Levermann, a and Hofmann, M and Rahmstorf, S},
	year = {2007},
	note = {ISBN: 2007101029},
	keywords = {driven upwelling, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004RG000166, doi:10.102},
	pages = {RG2001}
}

@misc{noauthor_ramanathan_convective_radiative.pdf_nodate,
	title = {Ramanathan\_convective\_radiative.pdf}
}

@article{climatology_earth_2002,
	title = {Earth ’ s {Annual} {Global} {Energy} {Budget}},
	author = {Climatology, Ecological},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {197--208}
}

@article{waugh_changes_2014,
	title = {Changes in the ventilation of the southern oceans {Subject} {Areas} :},
	author = {Waugh, Darryn W.},
	year = {2014}
}

@article{srinivasan_abyssal_2000,
	title = {Abyssal upwelling in the {Indian} {Ocean}: {Radiocarbon} diagnostics},
	volume = {58},
	issn = {15439542},
	url = {http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0034471846&partnerID=tZOtx3y1},
	doi = {10.1357/002224000321358891},
	abstract = {The GEOSECS Indian Ocean radiocarbon and carbonate chemistry data set are used to estimate the mean upwelling transport of bottom water in the Indian Ocean north of 30S. The study uses an "adjusted radiocarbon concentration" which is corrected for the effects of addition of particulate radiocarbon to the deep ocean. The cross-basin uniformity in the vertical gradients of "adjusted radiocarbon" allows quantification of vertical transfer processes using horizontally averaged concentration and fluxes. The estimated total upwelling flux, north of 30S, is 8.2 ± 1.5 X 106 m3 s-1. The mean upwelling velocity and the vertical diffusivity, in the 3000-4500 m depth range, are estimated as 3 X 106 m s-1 and 2.5 X 10-4 m2 s-1, respectively. The results also suggest faster upwelling in the western Indian Ocean.},
	number = {5},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	author = {Srinivasan, Ashwanth and Rooth, Claes G. H. and Top, Zafer and Olson, D. B.},
	year = {2000},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-2402},
	pages = {755--778}
}

@article{small_journal_2014,
	title = {Journal of {Advances} in {Modeling} {Earth} {Systems}},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {19422466},
	doi = {10.1002/2013MS000282.Received},
	abstract = {Large-eddy simulation is used to study the sensitivity of trade wind cumulus clouds to pertur-bations in cloud droplet number concentrations. We find that the trade wind cumulus system approaches a radiative-convective equilibrium state, modified by net warming and drying from imposed large-scale advective forcing. The system requires several days to reach equilibrium when cooling rates are specified but much less time, and with less sensitivity to cloud droplet number density, when radiation depends real-istically on the vertical distribution of water vapor. The transient behavior and the properties of the near-equilibrium cloud field depend on the microphysical state and therefore on the cloud droplet number den-sity, here taken as a proxy for the ambient aerosol. The primary response of the cloud field to changes in the cloud droplet number density is deepening of the cloud layer. This deepening leads to a decrease in rel-ative humidity and a faster evaporation of small clouds and cloud remnants constituting a negative lifetime effect. In the near-equilibrium regime, the decrease in cloud cover compensates much of the Twomey effect, i.e., the brightening of the clouds, and the overall aerosol effect on the albedo of the organized pre-cipitating cumulus cloud field is small.},
	journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
	author = {Small, Justin and Bony, Sandrine},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {513--526}
}

@article{alan_turing._1950,
	title = {Turing. {Computing} machinery and intelligence},
	volume = {59},
	issn = {0026-4423},
	url = {papers2://publication/uuid/E74CAAC6-F3DD-47E7-AEA6-5FB511730877},
	doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6710-5_3},
	abstract = {Will computers and robots ever think and communicate{\textbackslash}nthe way humans do? When a computer crosses the{\textbackslash}nthreshold into self-consciousness, will it immediately{\textbackslash}njump into the Internet and create a World Mind? This is{\textbackslash}nan exploration of both the philosophical and{\textbackslash}nmethodological issues surrounding the search for true{\textbackslash}nartificial intelligence.},
	number = {236},
	journal = {Mind},
	author = {Alan, M},
	year = {1950},
	pmid = {18684640},
	note = {arXiv: 10.2307/2251299
ISBN: 1-4020-9624-0 (paperback), 1-4020-6708-9 (hardcover), 1-4020-6710-0 (e-book)},
	pages = {433--460}
}

@article{lorenz_deterministic_1963,
	title = {Deterministic {Nonperiodic} {Flow}},
	volume = {20},
	issn = {0022-4928},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1963)020<0130:DNF>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Finite systems of deterministic ordinary nonlinear differential equations may be designed to represent forced dissipative hydrodynamic flow. Solutions of these equations can be identified with trajectories in phase space. For those systems with bounded solutions, it is found that nonperiodic solutions are ordinarily unstable with respect to small modifications, so that slightly differing initial states can evolve into considerably different states. Systems with bounded solutions are shown to possess bounded numerical solutions. A simple system representing cellular convection is solved numerically. All of the solutions are found to be unstable, and almost all of them are nonperiodic. The feasibility of very-long-range weather prediction is examined in the light of these results.},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Lorenz, Edward N.},
	year = {1963},
	pmid = {20394051},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-4928},
	pages = {130--141}
}

@article{Toggweiler1994,
	title = {The {Ocean}'s {Overturning} {Circulation}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {19450699},
	doi = {10.1063/1.881425},
	abstract = {Each second millions of cubic meters of water circulate between the ocean's surface and its depths. Despite the crucial role this "overturning" may play in regulating Earth's climate, we still do not know how vulnerable it is to anthropogenic environmental changes},
	number = {11},
	journal = {Physics Today},
	author = {Toggweiler, J. Robert},
	year = {1994},
	pages = {45--50}
}

@article{Ferrari2014,
	title = {What goes down must come up},
	volume = {513},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Ferrari, Raffaele},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {179--180}
}

@article{melorose_no_2015,
	title = {No {Title} {No} {Title}},
	volume = {1},
	issn = {1098-6596},
	doi = {10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004},
	journal = {Statewide Agricultural Land Use Baseline 2015},
	author = {Melorose, J. and Perroy, R. and Careas, S.},
	year = {2015},
	pmid = {25246403},
	note = {arXiv: 1011.1669v3
ISBN: 9788578110796},
	keywords = {icle}
}

@article{fox-kemper_parameterization_2008,
	title = {Parameterization of {Mixed} {Layer} {Eddies}. {Part} {II}: {Prognosis} and {Impact}},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/2007JPO3788.1},
	abstract = {Abstract The authors propose a parameterization for restratification by mixed layer eddies that develop from baroclinic instabilities of ocean fronts. The parameterization is cast as an overturning streamfunction that is proportional to the product of horizontal buoyancy gradient, mixed layer depth, and inertial period. The parameterization has remarkable skill for an extremely wide range of mixed layer depths, rotation rates, and vertical and horizontal stratifications. In this paper a coarse resolution prognostic model of the parameterization is compared with submesoscale mixed layer eddy resolving simulations. The parameterization proves accurate in predicting changes to the buoyancy. The climate implications of the proposed parameterization are estimated by applying the restratification scaling to observations: the mixed layer depth is estimated from climatology, and the buoyancy gradients are from satellite altimetry. The vertical fluxes are comparable to monthly mean air–sea fluxes in large areas of...},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Fox-Kemper, Baylor and Ferrari, Raffaele},
	year = {2008},
	note = {ISBN: 0022-3670},
	pages = {1166--1179}
}

@article{mackin_effectiveness_2012,
	title = {The effectiveness of rotating tank experiments in teaching undergraduate courses in atmospheres, {Oceans}, and climate sciences},
	volume = {60},
	issn = {1089-9995},
	url = {http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84857394943&partnerID=40&md5=517896fcb7d61dac7321273a2063f5b6},
	doi = {10.5408/10-194.1},
	abstract = {While it is commonly recognized that laboratory experiments and demonstrations have made a considerable contribution to our understanding of fluid dynamics, few U.S. universities that offer courses in meteorology and/or oceanography provide opportunities for students to observe fluid experiments in the classroom. This article explores the evaluation results of a threeyear, NSF-funded project in partnership with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and five universities nationally, to provide laboratory demonstrations, equipment, and curriculum materials for use in the teaching of atmospheres, oceans, and climate. The aim of the project was to offer instructors a repertoire of rotating tank experiments and a curriculum in fluid dynamics to better assist students in learning how to move between phenomena in the real world and basic principles of rotating fluid dynamics, which play a central role in determining the climate of the planet. The evaluation highlights the overwhelmingly positive responses from instructors and students who used the experiments, citing that the Weather in a Tank curriculum offered a less passive and more engaged and interactive teaching and learning environment. Results of three years of pre- and posttesting on measures of content related to atmospheres, oceans, and climate sciences with over 900 students in treatment and comparison conditions, revealed that the treatment groups consistently made greater gains at the posttest than the comparison groups, especially those students in introductory level courses and lab courses. © 2012 National Association of Geoscience Teachers.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Journal of Geoscience Education},
	author = {Mackin, K J and Cook-Smith, N and Illari, L and Marshall, J and Sadler, P},
	year = {2012},
	note = {ISBN: 10899995 (ISSN)},
	keywords = {Atmospheric and oceanic sciences, Climate, Education science experiments, Education testing and evaluation, Education undergraduate, Fluids, Geophysical fluid dynamics, Rotating fluids, Teaching and curriculum, United States, curriculum, fluid dynamics, geography education, higher education, learning, rotating fluid, teaching},
	pages = {67--82}
}

@article{u.s._environmental_protection_agency_marine_nodate,
	title = {Marine {Debris} in the {North} {Pacific}},
	number = {November 2011},
	journal = {A summary of Existing Information and Identification of Data Gaps},
	author = {{U.S. Environmental Protection Agency}},
	keywords = {coastal, debris, marine, north pacific gyre, ocean},
	pages = {23}
}

@article{weaver_stability_1993,
	title = {Stability and {Variability} of the {Thermohaline} {Circulation}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1993)023<0039:SAVOTT>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Vacío},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Weaver, Andrew J. and Marotzke, Jochem and Cummins, Patrick F. and Sarachik, E. S.},
	year = {1993},
	pages = {39--60}
}

@article{primeau_oceans_2006,
	title = {The {Ocean}’s {Memory} of the {Atmosphere}: {Residence}-{Time} and {Ventilation}-{Rate}},
	volume = {36},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Primeau, François and Holzer, Mark},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {1439--1456}
}

@article{england_age_1995,
	title = {The {Age} of {Water} and {Ventilation} {Timescales} in a {Global} {Ocean} {Model}},
	volume = {25},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {England, Matthew H.},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {2756--2777}
}

@article{orth_obituary_1989,
	title = {{OBITUARY} {John} {F} . {D} . {S} . {R} . {C} . {S} .( {Eng} ), {F} . {F} . {D} . {R} . {C} . {S} .( {I} ),},
	author = {Orth, D},
	year = {1989},
	note = {ISBN: 0521304210},
	pages = {4356}
}

@article{franklin_subscribe_1774,
	title = {To subscribe to {Phil}. {Trans}. , go to: http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/subscriptions},
	volume = {64},
	doi = {10.1098/rstl.1763.0053},
	journal = {Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London},
	author = {Franklin, B. and Brownrigg, W. and Farish, M.},
	year = {1774},
	pages = {445--460}
}

@article{girton_submesoscale_2011,
	title = {Submesoscale {Mixed} {Layer} {Dynamics}},
	author = {Girton, James},
	year = {2011},
	pages = {1--15}
}

@article{griffies_elements_2012,
	title = {Elements of the {Modular} {Ocean} {Model} ({MOM}): 2012 release},
	volume = {3},
	number = {C},
	journal = {GFDL Ocean Group Technical Report No. 7},
	author = {Griffies, Steve M},
	year = {2012},
	pages = {1--631}
}

@article{soomere_preventive_2013,
	title = {Preventive methods for coastal protection: {Towards} the use of ocean dynamics for pollution control},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-319-00440-2},
	journal = {Preventive Methods for Coastal Protection: Towards the Use of Ocean Dynamics for Pollution Control},
	author = {Soomere, Tarmo and Quak, Ewald},
	year = {2013},
	note = {ISBN: 9783319004402},
	pages = {1--442}
}

@article{nycander_chaotic_2002,
	title = {Chaotic and regular trajectories in the {\textbackslash}textsc\{{A}\}ntarctic {Circumpolar} {Current}},
	volume = {54A},
	journal = {Tellus},
	author = {Nycander, Jonas and Doos, Kristofer and Coward, Andrew C},
	year = {2002},
	keywords = {ACC, chao, trajectory},
	pages = {99--106}
}

@article{griffies_fundamentals_2004,
	title = {Fundamentals of ocean climate models},
	abstract = {This book sets forth the physical, mathematical, and numerical foundations of computer models used to understand and predict the global ocean climate system. Aimed at students and researchers of ocean and climate science who seek to understand the physical content of ocean model equations and numerical methods for their solution, it is largely general in formulation and employs modern mathematical techniques. It also highlights certain areas of cutting-edge research. Stephen Griffies presents material that spans a broad spectrum of issues critical for modern ocean climate models. Topics are organized into parts consisting of related chapters, with each part largely self-contained. Early chapters focus on the basic equations arising from classical mechanics and thermodynamics used to rationalize ocean fluid dynamics. These equations are then cast into a form appropriate for numerical models of finite grid resolution. Basic discretization methods are described for commonly used classes of ocean climate models. The book proceeds to focus on the parameterization of phenomena occurring at scales unresolved by the ocean model, which represents a large part of modern oceanographic research. The final part provides a tutorial on the tensor methods that are used throughout the book, in a general and elegant fashion, to formulate the equations.},
	journal = {Princeton University Press},
	author = {Griffies, Stephen M.},
	year = {2004},
	pmid = {25246403},
	note = {ISBN: 9780691118925},
	pages = {518 pp}
}

@article{morrison_project_1970,
	title = {Project narrative},
	number = {iii},
	author = {Morrison, Adele},
	year = {1970},
	pages = {1--7}
}